# China and Mongolia compared

China and Mongolia side by side: 42 shared sourced indicators across 9 domains, and the 8 events their chronicles record of each other.

Canonical: https://terralore.co/compare/chn-vs-mng
Updated: 2026-08-10 (latest of the two dossiers' refreshes and the two chronicles' verification dates)

Two sourced records set beside each other — nothing on this page was written for the pair. Every figure is the same observation, with the same source, as on the two national dossiers; every event is the same record, with the same sources, as on its own chronicle. Figures are compared, never graded. A "—" is an absence in the source data, never a zero; each value shows its own observation year — vintages differ by indicator and nation.

## Formation

- China: 221 BCE — Qin Shi Huang completes the unification of China
- Mongolia: 1206 — A kurultai proclaims Temüjin ruler of the Great Mongol Nation

## Economy

| Metric | China | Observed | Mongolia | Observed |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| GDP | $18.74 T | 2024 | $24 B | 2024 |
| GDP per capita | $13,303 | 2024 | $6,751 | 2024 |
| GDP growth | 5.0% | 2024 | 5.1% | 2024 |
| Inflation | 0.2% | 2024 | 6.2% | 2024 |
| Trade openness | 37.2% | 2024 | 138.4% | 2024 |

## Society

| Metric | China | Observed | Mongolia | Observed |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Population | 1.41 bn | 2024 | 3.5 m | 2024 |
| Life expectancy | 78.0 yrs | 2024 | 72.4 yrs | 2024 |
| Urban population | 65.9% | 2024 | 71.0% | 2024 |
| Fertility rate | 1.0 | 2024 | 2.5 | 2024 |

## Governance

| Metric | China | Observed | Mongolia | Observed |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Voice & accountability | 27.9 | 2024 | 59.1 | 2024 |
| Political stability | 63.3 | 2024 | 73.1 | 2024 |
| Government effectiveness | 68.8 | 2024 | 43.8 | 2024 |
| Regulatory quality | 53.7 | 2024 | 53.7 | 2024 |
| Rule of law | 47.0 | 2024 | 55.2 | 2024 |
| Control of corruption | 49.6 | 2024 | 38.0 | 2024 |

## Health

| Metric | China | Observed | Mongolia | Observed |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Health spending | 5.9% | 2023 | 6.1% | 2023 |
| Physicians | 3.11 | 2022 | 4.13 | 2022 |
| Under-5 mortality | 5.7 | 2024 | 13.4 | 2024 |
| Measles immunisation | 95.0% | 2024 | 96.0% | 2024 |
| Safe drinking water | — | — | 43.4% | 2024 |

## Education

| Metric | China | Observed | Mongolia | Observed |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Adult literacy | 96.7% | 2020 | 98.6% | 2024 |
| Education spending | 3.9% | 2023 | 5.2% | 2024 |
| Primary enrolment | 99.6% | 2024 | 92.3% | 2024 |
| Secondary enrolment | 92.3% | 2012 | 96.8% | 2023 |
| Tertiary enrolment | 76.9% | 2024 | 69.0% | 2024 |

## Technology

| Metric | China | Observed | Mongolia | Observed |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| R&D spending | 2.6% | 2023 | 0.1% | 2022 |
| Researchers (per million) | 2,107 | 2023 | 535 | 2022 |
| Internet users | 91.6% | 2025 | 85.1% | 2024 |
| Mobile subscriptions | 132 | 2024 | 141 | 2024 |
| High-tech exports | 26.3% | 2024 | 22.5% | 2023 |

## Geography

| Metric | China | Observed | Mongolia | Observed |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Land area | 9,388,210 km² | 2023 | 1,558,500 km² | 2023 |
| Forest area | 24.0% | 2023 | 9.1% | 2023 |
| Agricultural land | 55.4% | 2023 | 69.0% | 2023 |
| CO₂ per capita (t) | 9.3 | 2024 | 7.8 | 2024 |
| Renewable energy | 15.2% | 2021 | 3.0% | 2021 |

## Resources

| Metric | China | Observed | Mongolia | Observed |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Resource rents | 1.7% | 2021 | 33.1% | 2021 |
| Oil rents | 0.3% | 2021 | 1.5% | 2021 |
| Mineral rents | 0.5% | 2021 | 26.6% | 2021 |
| Forest rents | 0.1% | 2021 | 0.2% | 2021 |
| Electricity access | 100.0% | 2023 | 100.0% | 2023 |
| Copper (mined) | 1.8 Mt | 2025 | — | — |
| Iron ore | 290 Mt | 2025 | — | — |
| Gold (mined) | 380 t | 2025 | — | — |
| Lithium (mined) | 62.0 kt | 2025 | — | — |
| Cobalt (mined) | 2,000 t | 2025 | — | — |
| Nickel (mined) | 120 kt | 2025 | — | — |
| Rare earths | 270 kt | 2025 | — | — |
| Bauxite | 87 Mt | 2025 | — | — |
| Zinc (mined) | 4.1 Mt | 2025 | — | — |
| Phosphate rock | 110 Mt | 2025 | — | — |

## Military

| Metric | China | Observed | Mongolia | Observed |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Military burden | 1.7% | 2024 | 0.7% | 2024 |
| Defense spending | $314 B | 2024 | $181 M | 2024 |
| Armed forces | 2.5 m | 2020 | 18,000 | 2020 |

Each metric is also ranked across all nations: https://terralore.co/rankings (markdown twins at /rankings/<metric>.md). Full dossiers: https://terralore.co/country/CHN.md and https://terralore.co/country/MNG.md.

## Entangled histories (8 events)

Events in which either nation's sourced chronicle names the other — including under earlier names of the same state. Each is the record exactly as its own chronicle carries it, with that chronicle's sources.

- c. 209 BCE: **The Xiongnu confederation reaches its height** — At the close of the third century BCE the Xiongnu unite the eastern steppe under a supreme chanyu, forming a nomadic empire that rivals the Qin and Han dynasties of China for centuries. (from the Mongolia chronicle; sources: Xiongnu; History of Mongolia)
- c. 48 CE: **Break-up of the Xiongnu empire** — After prolonged war with China and internal division, the Xiongnu confederation fractures; some tribes are absorbed into China while others scatter, ending the first great steppe empire centred on Mongolia. (from the Mongolia chronicle; sources: Xiongnu)
- 1227: **Death of Chinggis Khan** — Chinggis Khan dies in August 1227 during a campaign against the Tangut Xixia kingdom, leaving an empire reaching from northern China to the Caspian Sea and a realm divided among his four sons. (from the Mongolia chronicle; sources: Genghis Khan)
- 1271 CE: **Kublai Khan founds the Mongol Yuan dynasty** — Kublai Khan declares the Yuan dynasty in 1271 and completes the conquest of the Song by 1279, ruling China from Dadu (Beijing) as the first foreign-led dynasty to govern all of China. (from the China chronicle; sources: Yuan dynasty; Yuan Dynasty)
- 1271: **Kublai Khan founds the Yuan dynasty** — Chinggis Khan's grandson Kublai proclaims the Yuan dynasty in 1271 and completes the conquest of China by 1279, ruling all of China from Khanbaliq (Beijing) as its first non-Chinese sovereign. (from the Mongolia chronicle; sources: Kublai Khan; Mongol empire)
- 1368: **Fall of the Yuan and retreat to the steppe** — The Chinese rebel Zhu Yuanzhang overthrows the Yuan and founds the Ming dynasty; the last Mongol emperor flees north into the steppes, ending Mongol rule over China. (from the Mongolia chronicle; sources: Kublai Khan; Mongol empire)
- 1691: **Khalkha Mongols submit to the Qing** — The Khalkha Mongols of the north accept Manchu overlordship, bringing Mongolia under the Qing dynasty; the Manchus govern through the Mongol nobility and impose religious controls to secure their rule. (from the Mongolia chronicle; sources: History of Mongolia: The ascendancy of the Manchu; History of Mongolia)
- 1911: **Independence declared under the Bogd Khan** — As the Qing collapses, Mongolia expels the Manchu official and proclaims the Javzandamba as Bogd Khan, head of an independent theocratic monarchy, though only autonomy under Chinese suzerainty is recognized abroad. (from the Mongolia chronicle; sources: Mongolia: Independence and revolution; Bogd Gegeen Khan)

## Sources

- World Development Indicators — World Bank · CC BY 4.0 · accessed 2026-06-14 · https://data.worldbank.org
- Worldwide Governance Indicators (via World Bank API) — Worldwide Governance Indicators / World Bank · CC BY 4.0 · accessed 2026-08-10 · https://www.worldbank.org/en/publication/worldwide-governance-indicators
- Global Health Observatory (WHO, via World Bank WDI) — WHO / World Bank · CC BY 4.0 · accessed 2026-08-10 · https://www.who.int/data/gho
- Child mortality & immunisation estimates (UN IGME and WHO/UNICEF, via World Bank WDI) — UNICEF and WHO / World Bank · CC BY 4.0 · accessed 2026-08-10 · https://childmortality.org
- R&D statistics (UNESCO UIS, via World Bank WDI) — UNESCO Institute for Statistics / World Bank · CC BY 4.0 · accessed 2026-06-15 · https://uis.unesco.org
- ICT indicators (ITU, via World Bank WDI) — ITU / World Bank · CC BY 4.0 · accessed 2026-06-15 · https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics
- Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026 — U.S. Geological Survey · Public domain (U.S. Government work) · accessed 2026-08-10 · https://www.usgs.gov/centers/national-minerals-information-center
- Military Expenditure Database (via World Development Indicators) — SIPRI / World Bank · CC BY 4.0 · accessed 2026-06-14 · https://www.sipri.org/databases/milex

Chronicle references are cited inline above and resolve in full at https://terralore.co/country/CHN/chronicle.md and https://terralore.co/country/MNG/chronicle.md.

Citation template: Terralore, "China and Mongolia compared", terralore.co/compare/chn-vs-mng, retrieved <YYYY-MM-DD>.