# The Chronicle of Kazakhstan: From the Saka horsemen of the Great Steppe to the world's largest landlocked nation. History of Kazakhstan: From the Saka horsemen of the Great Steppe to the world's largest landlocked nation. 6 eras and 21 sourced events, every claim… Canonical: https://terralore.co/country/KAZ/chronicle Updated: 2026-06-15 Founding: Foundation of the Kazakh Khanate by Janibek and Kerei — c. 1465. Kazakh statehood is conventionally traced to about 1465, when the sultans Janibek and Kerei, descendants of Genghis Khan through Urus Khan of the Jochid line, broke with the Uzbek ruler Abu'l-Khayr Khan and led their followers into Zhetysu (Semirechye, the 'land of seven rivers') in the southeast of present-day Kazakhstan, where they established an independent realm. The Kazakh Khanate that grew from this migration is regarded as the political and ethnic root of the Kazakh nation; its 550th anniversary was marked nationally in 2015. The khanate later organised itself into three jüz, or hordes, the Great, Middle, and Little, and endured until the Russian Empire abolished the last of its khans in the nineteenth century. The modern Republic of Kazakhstan declared its independence on 16 December 1991, the last of the Soviet republics to do so. Kazakhstan occupies the heart of the Eurasian steppe, a vast grassland that for three millennia nourished mounted nomads, from the Iron Age Saka (the eastern Scythians) through the Turkic khaganates and the Silk Road towns of Otrar, Taraz, and Turkestan. Genghis Khan's armies stormed the region in 1219-1221 and folded it into the Mongol empire's western wing, the Golden Horde; out of the Horde's breakup the sultans Janibek and Kerei founded the Kazakh Khanate around 1465, an event Kazakhs regard as the root of their statehood, organised into three jüz (hordes). Russia gradually absorbed the steppe from the 1730s, and after 1917 it became the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic, scene of the catastrophic 1930-33 collectivisation famine, the Virgin Lands campaign, the Gulag, and the Semipalatinsk nuclear test site. Kazakhstan was the last Soviet republic to declare independence, on 16 December 1991, and under Nursultan Nazarbayev built a new capital at Astana and a resource-driven economy before a turbulent succession to Kassym-Jomart Tokayev amid the January 2022 unrest. This file carries the chronicle's sourced event record — every event with its year, summary and source keys (resolved under References below). The full reading narrative lives on the canonical page. ## The Saka and the Turkic Steppe — c. 700 BCE – 1219 CE Iron Age horse-warriors, then Turkic khaganates and Silk Road towns, made the Kazakh steppe a crossroads of Eurasia. - c. 4th century BCE: **The Saka 'Golden Man' of Issyk** — A high-status Saka warrior is buried in the Issyk kurgan near Almaty in a costume of thousands of gold plaques, a celebrated emblem of the Iron Age nomad cultures that dominated the Kazakh steppe in the first millennium BCE. [astanatimes-saka, britannica-history-kaz] - 6th century CE: **Turkic khaganates dominate the steppe** — Turkic-speaking confederations, beginning with the Türk (Göktürk) Khaganate and later the Karakhanids, take control of the region; Zhetysu becomes a heartland of the Western Turkic realm, fixing the Turkic language and spreading Islam. [britannica-history-kaz, britannica-kazakhstan] - 10th–12th centuries: **Silk Road towns of the south flourish** — Caravan cities such as Otrar, Taraz, Sauran, and Yasi prosper on the trade between China and the Mediterranean, becoming centres of commerce, craft, and Islamic learning along the southern Kazakh steppe. [britannica-history-kaz, britannica-kazakhstan] ## The Mongol Conquest and the Golden Horde — 1219 – 1465 Genghis Khan razed the Silk Road cities and bound the steppe to the Mongol empire's western wing, the Golden Horde. - 1219–1221: **Mongol conquest of the Syr Darya and Khwarezm** — Provoked by the killing of his envoys at Otrar, Genghis Khan storms the Silk Road towns and overruns Khwarezm; Otrar falls after a months-long siege, and the steppe is absorbed into the Mongol empire. [britannica-history-kaz, britannica-golden-horde] - mid-13th century: **The Golden Horde rules the western steppe** — The lands of present-day Kazakhstan pass to the line of Jochi, forming the western wing of the Mongol empire known as the Golden Horde, where Turks outnumber Mongols and Islam becomes the prevailing faith. [britannica-golden-horde, britannica-history-kaz] - 1389–1405: **Timur builds the Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi** — At Yasi (Turkestan) Timur orders a monumental mausoleum over the tomb of the Sufi master Khoja Ahmed Yasawi; left unfinished at Timur's death in 1405, it became a masterpiece of Timurid architecture and a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2003. [unesco-yasawi, britannica-history-kaz] ## The Kazakh Khanate and the Three Jüz — 1465 – 1731 Janibek and Kerei founded the Kazakh state on the steppe; it grew into three jüz and faced a deadly Dzungar onslaught. - c. 1465: **Foundation of the Kazakh Khanate** — The Jochid sultans Janibek and Kerei break with Abu'l-Khayr Khan and lead their followers into Zhetysu, founding the Kazakh Khanate, the realm Kazakhs regard as the root of their nation and statehood. [ehistory-khanate, britannica-history-kaz] - 16th–17th centuries: **The three jüz take shape** — Kazakh society organises into three hordes, the Great, Middle, and Little jüz, each a confederation of tribes with its own pastures, united by language, Islam, and descent and headed by Genghisid khans. [britannica-history-kaz, ehistory-khanate] - c. 1723: **The 'Great Disaster' of the Dzungar wars** — Devastating invasions by the Buddhist Dzungar confederation drive Kazakhs from their pastures with great loss of life, an episode remembered as the Aktaban Shubyryndy that gravely weakens the khanate. [britannica-history-kaz, britannica-kazakhstan] Figures: - Janibek and Kerei (15th century) — Founding khans of the Kazakh Khanate. Two Jochid sultans, descendants of Genghis Khan through Urus Khan, who around 1465 led their followers away from Uzbek rule into Zhetysu and founded the Kazakh Khanate, regarded as the origin of Kazakh statehood. ## The Russian Conquest of the Steppe — 1731 – 1917 Seeking shelter from the Dzungars, the hordes accepted Russian protection; over a century the empire abolished the khans and colonised the steppe. - 1731: **The Little Horde accepts Russian protection** — Abu'l-Khayr Khan of the Little Horde swears allegiance to the Russian Empire for protection against the Dzungars; the Middle Horde follows in 1740 and part of the Great Horde in 1742, opening the steppe to Russian power. [britannica-history-kaz, britannica-kazakhstan] - 1771: **Ablai Khan elected ruler of the Kazakhs** — Ablai (Abylai) is elected khan of the Kazakhs and balances between the Russian and Qing empires to preserve a degree of independence; he endures as a national symbol of Kazakh sovereignty. [ehistory-ablai, britannica-history-kaz] - 1822–1848: **Russia abolishes the Kazakh khanates** — To end Kazakh autonomy, Russia abolishes the khanate of the Middle Horde in 1822, the Little Horde in 1824, and the Great Horde in 1848, dismantling the political structure of the Kazakh Khanate. [britannica-history-kaz, britannica-kazakhstan] - 1837–1847: **Kenesary Kasymov's revolt** — Kenesary Kasymov, a grandson of Ablai Khan, leads the largest Kazakh uprising against Russian rule, fighting to restore the independent khanate until he is killed in 1847. [britannica-history-kaz, loc-country-study] Figures: - Ablai Khan (Abylai) (c. 1711–1781) — Khan of the Kazakhs. Elected ruler of the Kazakhs in 1771, Ablai Khan defended the steppe against the Dzungars and manoeuvred between the Russian and Qing empires to preserve Kazakh independence; he is revered as a unifier and national hero. - Abai Kunanbaiuly (Abay Kunanbayev) (1845–1904) — Poet, composer, and philosopher. The founder of modern written Kazakh literature, Abai fused Kazakh oral verse with Russian models, translating Pushkin and Lermontov and laying the basis of the modern Kazakh literary language and national thought. ## Soviet Kazakhstan — 1917 – 1991 Collectivisation brought a famine that killed a third of the Kazakhs; later came the Virgin Lands, the Gulag, and the nuclear steppe. - 1930–1933: **The Kazakh famine (Asharshylyk)** — Forced collectivisation and the settling of nomads under Filipp Goloshchekin produce a man-made famine that kills an estimated 1.5 million people, around a third of all Kazakhs, the deadliest catastrophe in Kazakh history; the toll is an estimate. [loc-famine-blog, loc-cameron] - 5 December 1936: **Kazakh S.S.R. becomes a union republic** — Kazakhstan, an autonomous republic since 1920 and renamed the Kazak A.S.S.R. in 1925, is raised to a full constituent republic of the Soviet Union under the 1936 constitution. [britannica-history-kaz, loc-country-study] - 1949–1989: **Semipalatinsk nuclear test site** — The Soviet Union conducts some 456 nuclear tests at the Semipalatinsk site in northeastern Kazakhstan between 1949 and 1989, exposing local populations to radioactive fallout with severe long-term health effects. [britannica-kazakhstan, loc-country-study] - from 1954: **Khrushchev's Virgin Lands campaign** — Nikita Khrushchev's drive to plough up the northern Kazakh steppe for grain brings hundreds of thousands of mostly Slavic settlers, transforming the republic's demography so that Kazakhs become a minority in Kazakhstan. [britannica-history-kaz, loc-country-study] Figures: - Filipp Goloshchekin (1876–1941) — First Secretary of the Kazak A.S.S.R.. The Soviet party leader who imposed forced collectivisation and the settling of nomads in Kazakhstan, policies that produced the catastrophic famine of 1930-33; he was himself executed in 1941 during the Stalinist purges. ## Independent Kazakhstan — 1991 – present The last republic to leave the USSR became an oil-rich state under Nazarbayev, a new capital at Astana, and a turbulent transition to Tokayev. - 16 December 1991: **Kazakhstan declares independence** — Kazakhstan proclaims itself a sovereign, independent state, the last of the Soviet republics to declare independence, with Nursultan Nazarbayev as president; the USSR formally dissolves days later. [britannica-independent-kaz, britannica-history-kaz] - 1997: **Capital moved to Astana** — Nazarbayev relocates the capital from Almaty to Akmola on the northern steppe; renamed Astana ('capital') in 1998, it is rebuilt as a planned showcase city of modern architecture. [britannica-independent-kaz, britannica-kazakhstan] - March 2019: **Nazarbayev resigns; Tokayev succeeds** — After nearly three decades in power, Nazarbayev steps down as president, handing office to Kassym-Jomart Tokayev while retaining major influence; the capital is briefly renamed Nur-Sultan in his honour. [britannica-independent-kaz] - January 2022: **'Bloody January' unrest** — Protests over fuel prices spread nationwide and turn violent; Tokayev declares a state of emergency, summons CSTO troops, and authorises lethal force, with about 227 deaths reported, then sidelines Nazarbayev's allies to consolidate power. [britannica-independent-kaz, helsinki-bloody-january] Figures: - Nursultan Nazarbayev (born 1940) — First President of Kazakhstan. Soviet-era party chief who led independent Kazakhstan from 1991 to 2019, renounced its nuclear arsenal, moved the capital to Astana, and built an oil-rich but tightly controlled state, retaining influence as 'Leader of the Nation' until the 2022 unrest. - Kassym-Jomart Tokayev (born 1953) — President of Kazakhstan. Career diplomat who succeeded Nazarbayev in 2019 and, after the violent 'Bloody January' of 2022, used the crisis to break his predecessor's network and consolidate power, restoring the capital's name to Astana and winning a new term that year. Machine-readable claims — every event above as an addressable claim ID (TL:KAZ:event::) with its sources and a ready citation string: https://terralore.co/country/KAZ/chronicle.claims.json ## References - [britannica-kazakhstan] Kazakhstan — Encyclopædia Britannica · https://www.britannica.com/place/Kazakhstan - [britannica-history-kaz] History of Kazakhstan — Encyclopædia Britannica · https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Kazakhstan - [britannica-independent-kaz] Kazakhstan: Independent Kazakhstan — Encyclopædia Britannica · https://www.britannica.com/place/Kazakhstan/Independent-Kazakhstan - [britannica-golden-horde] Golden Horde — Encyclopædia Britannica · https://www.britannica.com/place/Golden-Horde - [britannica-abai] Abay Ibrahim Kūnanbay-ulï — Encyclopædia Britannica · https://www.britannica.com/biography/Abay-Ibrahim-Kunanbay-uli - [unesco-yasawi] Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi — UNESCO World Heritage Centre · https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1103/ - [loc-famine-blog] The Kazakh Famine of the 1930s — Library of Congress (John W. Kluge Center) · https://blogs.loc.gov/kluge/2016/08/the-kazakh-famine-of-the-1930s/ - [loc-cameron] The Hungry Steppe: Famine, Violence, and the Making of Soviet Kazakhstan — Library of Congress (John W. Kluge Center) · https://blogs.loc.gov/kluge/2025/09/25-25-cameron/ - [loc-country-study] Kazakstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan: Country Studies — Library of Congress, Federal Research Division · https://www.loc.gov/resource/frdcstdy.kazakstankyrgyzs00curt_0/ - [ehistory-khanate] Establishment of the Kazakh Khanate — Portal 'History of Kazakhstan' (e-history.kz), National Academic Library · https://e-history.kz/en/history-of-kazakhstan/show/9553 - [ehistory-ablai] Abylai the King: A Warrior, Diplomat and Patriot — Portal 'History of Kazakhstan' (e-history.kz), National Academic Library · https://e-history.kz/en/news/show/7159 - [astanatimes-saka] Ancient Sakas: All You Need to Know — The Astana Times · https://astanatimes.com/2024/07/ancient-sakas-all-you-need-to-know/ - [helsinki-bloody-january] A regime transition in action: Bloody January in Kazakhstan — Aleksanteri Institute, University of Helsinki · https://www.helsinki.fi/en/aleksanteri-institute/news-and-events/news-archive/regime-transition-action-bloody-january-kazakhstan - [wikipedia-kazakh-khanate] Kazakh Khanate — Wikipedia · https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakh_Khanate - [statedept-kazakhstan] A Guide to the United States' History of Recognition: Kazakhstan — U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian · https://history.state.gov/countries/kazakhstan Citation template: Terralore, "The Chronicle of Kazakhstan: From the Saka horsemen of the Great Steppe to the world's largest landlocked nation.", terralore.co/country/KAZ/chronicle, retrieved .