14 records
Africa
- TCD
Chad · Colonisation
Chad joins French Equatorial Africa
France organised the conquered territory and incorporated Chad into the federation of French Equatorial Africa, governing the south far more closely than the Muslim north.
Rabih's empire and French conquest
Sources: Chad — Independence, Civil War, Lake Chad (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · French Chad (Wikipedia)
- COG
Congo · Colonisation
Middle Congo joins French Equatorial Africa
France reorganised its Central African colonies in 1910 into French Equatorial Africa — Gabon, Middle Congo, Ubangi-Shari and Chad — governed from Brazzaville, which became the federation's federal capital.
Brazza, Brazzaville, and the colony of Middle Congo
Sources: French Equatorial Africa (Wikipedia) · Republic of the Congo (Encyclopædia Britannica) · Moyen-Congo (Middle Congo) — Formation (GlobalSecurity.org)
- SWZ
Eswatini · Colonisation
Kept out of the Union of South Africa
When the Union of South Africa is formed, Swaziland remains under direct British control; despite later South African requests, the territory is never transferred.
British Territory and the Road to Independence
Sources: Eswatini — Colonial administration (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · History of Eswatini (Wikipedia) · Eswatini History (FamilySearch)
- GAB
Gabon · Colonisation
Gabon joins French Equatorial Africa
France reorganised its Central African colonies into French Equatorial Africa in 1910 — Gabon, the Middle Congo, Ubangi-Shari and Chad, governed from Brazzaville — with Gabon a separate colony.
Libreville, Brazza, and French conquest
Sources: French Equatorial Africa (Wikipedia) · History of Gabon (Encyclopædia Britannica)
- LSO
Lesotho · Colonisation
Kept out of the Union of South Africa
On the formation of the Union, Basutoland is excluded as a British High Commission Territory rather than incorporated into South Africa.
High Commission Territory to Independence
Sources: Southern Africa, 1899–1945 (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · History of Lesotho (Wikipedia)
- ZAF
South Africa · Formation · 31 May 1910
Union of South Africa
The four British colonies were united into the self-governing Union of South Africa under the South Africa Act, a white-controlled state that excluded the Black majority from political power.
Diamonds, gold, the South African War and Union
Sources: The Union of South Africa 1910 (South African History Online) · South Africa Act (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · South Africa (country, history and government) (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
Asia
- BTN
Bhutan · Politics & Power · 8 Jan 1910
Treaty of Punakha
Revising the Sinchula terms, Britain increases Bhutan's subsidy and pledges non-interference in internal affairs while guiding its foreign relations, securing Bhutan's continued independence.
Civil Strife and the British Treaties
Sources: Friendship and International Relations in the Himalayas: Bhutan, Britain, and the 1910 Treaty of Punakha (Cambridge University Press) · Nepal and Bhutan: Country Studies (Federal Research Division, Library of Congress)
- PRK
North Korea · Colonisation · 1910 CE
Japanese annexation of Korea
Japan formally annexes Korea, ending the Joseon dynasty and beginning thirty-five years of colonial rule over the entire peninsula.
Colonial Rule and Division
Sources: Korea Under Japanese Rule (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Korea (history) (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- KOR
South Korea · Colonisation · 1910 CE
Annexation and colonial government
Japan installs a Government-General in Seoul, ruling Korea through military and police power and beginning systematic economic exploitation.
Japanese Colonial Rule
Sources: Korea Under Japanese Rule (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- KOR
South Korea · Colonisation · 1910 CE
Japanese annexation of Korea
Japan formally annexes Korea, ending the Joseon dynasty and more than five centuries of Korean monarchy and beginning 35 years of colonial rule.
The Joseon Dynasty
Sources: Korea Under Japanese Rule (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Korea (history) (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
Europe
- MNE
Montenegro · Politics & Power · 28 Aug 1910
Montenegro proclaimed a kingdom
On the fiftieth anniversary of his reign, Prince Nikola I proclaimed Montenegro a kingdom and assumed the title of king, the last monarchy created in the Balkans.
Secular Principality, the Congress of Berlin and the Kingdom
Sources: Nicholas I, king of Montenegro (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Montenegro: History (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
North America
- HND
Honduras · Politics & Power · 1910-1911
Cuyamel and the Zemurray coup
Samuel Zemurray's Cuyamel Fruit Company buys plantation land and, in 1911, backs an armed coup to secure a favourable government.
The Banana Economy and the Original Banana Republic
Sources: Banana republic (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- MEX
Mexico · War & Rupture · 1910-1920
Mexican Revolution
A decade of revolution and civil war overthrows Diaz, costs over a million lives, and produces the Constitution of 1917.
Reform, Porfiriato, and Revolution
Sources: Mexican Revolution (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
Oceania
- AUS
Australia · Politics & Power · c. 1910–1970s
The Stolen Generations
Under official assimilation policies, governments and churches forcibly removed many thousands of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children from their families over decades, causing profound and lasting harm.
The world wars, immigration, and the twentieth century
Sources: Defining Moments: National Apology (National Museum of Australia) · Australia (country) (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
9 records
Africa
- CMR
Cameroon · Colonisation
France cedes Neukamerun
Under the Treaty of Fez ending the Agadir crisis, France ceded the large territory of Neukamerun to Germany, expanding the colony eastward.
German Kamerun
Sources: Kamerun (German colony) (Wikipedia) · History of Cameroon (Wikipedia)
- CAF
Central African Republic · War & Rupture · 12 January 1911
Death of al-Sanusi of Dar al-Kuti
French forces killed Muhammad al-Sanusi at Ndélé, ending the slave-raiding sultanate of Dar al-Kuti; his successor's resistance was suppressed by 1912.
Conquest and the Concession Regime
Sources: Dar al-Kuti (Wikipedia)
- LBY
Libya · Colonisation
Italo-Turkish War and the invasion of Libya
Italy attacks Tripoli on 3 October 1911 and seizes the Ottoman provinces; the 1912 Treaty of Lausanne cedes the territory to Italy.
Italian Colonisation and the Resistance
Sources: Italian colonization of Libya (Wikipedia) · Libya (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- ZMB
Zambia · Colonisation
Creation of Northern Rhodesia
The British South Africa Company amalgamated North-Western and North-Eastern Rhodesia into a single territory named Northern Rhodesia, administered under royal charter.
Company rule, Northern Rhodesia and the Copperbelt
Sources: Northern Rhodesia (Wikipedia)
Asia
- CHN
China · Independence · 1911 CE
Xinhai Revolution erupts
The Wuchang Uprising of 10 October 1911 sparks the Xinhai Revolution against the Qing, rapidly spreading across the provinces and bringing down China's last imperial dynasty.
The Fall of the Empire: Republic, Warlords, and War
Sources: China (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- MNG
Mongolia · Independence
Independence declared under the Bogd Khan
As the Qing collapses, Mongolia expels the Manchu official and proclaims the Javzandamba as Bogd Khan, head of an independent theocratic monarchy, though only autonomy under Chinese suzerainty is recognized abroad.
Independence, Revolution, and the People's Republic
Sources: Mongolia: Independence and revolution (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Bogd Gegeen Khan (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- YEM
Yemen · Politics & Power
Imam Yahya wins highland autonomy
Imam Yahya Hamid al-Din, leader of Zaidi resistance, secured by treaty a degree of autonomy from the Ottomans over the Zaidi highlands, foreshadowing full independence.
Ottomans, Britain and the Port of Aden
Sources: Yemen: History (ancient kingdoms, Islam, the imamate, unification and war) (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · A Guide to the United States' History of Recognition, Diplomatic, and Consular Relations, by Country, since 1776: Yemen (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian)
Europe
- MCO
Monaco · Politics & Power · 5 January 1911
Monaco's first constitution
Prince Albert I granted Monaco a constitution on 5 January 1911, ending absolute princely rule and beginning the principality's evolution into a constitutional state.
Sovereignty Tied to France and the Making of the Modern Principality
Sources: Monaco: 1815 to Present (GlobalSecurity.org) · Albert, prince of Monaco (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
South America
- URY
Uruguay · Politics & Power · 1911-1915
The great reforms
In his second term Batlle enacts the eight-hour day, free education, pensions, nationalisations, abolition of the death penalty and church-state separation, founding the model welfare state.
Batlle y Ordonez and the Model Country
Sources: Jose Batlle y Ordonez (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
9 records
Africa
- GNB
Guinea-Bissau · War & Rupture · c. 1912–1915
Teixeira Pinto's pacification of the mainland
The officer João Teixeira Pinto, with the auxiliary Abdul Injai, led brutal campaigns that crushed mainland resistance and brought the interior under Portuguese control for the first time.
Portuguese Guinea and the late conquest
Sources: History of Guinea-Bissau (Wikipedia) · Portuguese Guinea (Wikipedia) · Guinea-Bissau (country overview and history) (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- MAR
Morocco · Colonisation · 30 March 1912
Treaty of Fez establishes the protectorates
Sultan Abd al-Hafid signs the Treaty of Fez, making Morocco a French protectorate; a Spanish zone in the north and south and an international zone at Tangier are settled the same year.
The Alaouite Dynasty and the Protectorates
Sources: Treaty of Fès (1912) (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · A Guide to the United States' History of Recognition: Morocco (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian)
Asia
- CHN
China · Formation · 1912 CE
Republic of China founded; last emperor abdicates
Sun Yat-sen becomes provisional president of the Republic of China on 1 January 1912, and on 12 February the child emperor Puyi abdicates, ending more than two millennia of imperial rule.
The Fall of the Empire: Republic, Warlords, and War
Sources: China (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
Europe
- ALB
Albania · Independence · 28 Nov 1912
Declaration of independence at Vlore
An assembly at Vlore led by Ismail Qemali proclaimed Albania an independent state and raised the national flag, breaking from the Ottoman Empire during the First Balkan War.
Independence, the Conference of London and the Albanian Question
Sources: Vlore proclamation (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Ismail Qemali Leads Albania to Independence, November 1912 (Radio Television of Albania (RTSH)) · History of Albania (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- BGR
Bulgaria · War & Rupture
First Balkan War
Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece and Montenegro of the Balkan League drove the Ottoman Empire almost entirely out of Europe, with Bulgarian armies bearing the heaviest fighting in Thrace.
The Balkan Wars, the World Wars and the Saving of the Jews
Sources: Balkan Wars (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- KOS
Kosovo · War & Rupture · 1912–13
Balkan Wars bring Kosovo into Serbia
The Balkan Wars ended Ottoman rule, and Kosovo was incorporated into the Kingdom of Serbia, later part of the Yugoslav state.
Yugoslav Kosovo: Autonomy, Revocation and Parallel State
Sources: Kosovo: History (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- MNE
Montenegro · War & Rupture · 1912–1913
The Balkan Wars
Montenegro joined Serbia, Bulgaria and Greece in the First Balkan War against the Ottoman Empire and besieged Scutari, but was forced by the Great Powers to give up the captured city.
Secular Principality, the Congress of Berlin and the Kingdom
Sources: Montenegro: History (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Nicholas I, king of Montenegro (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- SRB
Serbia · War & Rupture · 1912–1913
The Balkan Wars
Serbia drove the Ottomans from most of their European lands and, after the Second Balkan War, gained Kosovo, Metohija and much of Macedonia, nearly doubling its territory and alarming Austria-Hungary.
The Serbian Revolution and the Road to Independence
Sources: Serbia: History (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
North America
- NIC
Nicaragua · War & Rupture · 1912–1933
United States Marine occupation
US Marines are stationed in Nicaragua to support Conservative governments and oversee its finances, with only a brief interruption, until 1933.
Intervention, Sandino, and the Somoza Dynasty
Sources: History of Nicaragua (Encyclopædia Britannica) · Territorial Expansion, Filibustering, and U.S. Interest in Central America (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian)
5 records
Africa
- GAB
Gabon · Religion
Schweitzer founds the Lambaréné hospital
Albert Schweitzer and his wife Hélène arrived at Lambaréné on the Ogooué in 1913 and founded a hospital near a mission; it treated thousands and made Lambaréné internationally known. Schweitzer received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1952.
Colonial Gabon and the road to independence
Sources: Albert Schweitzer (Wikipedia) · History of Gabon (Encyclopædia Britannica)
Asia
- KWT
Kuwait · Politics & Power
Kuwait's separate status confirmed
Anglo-Ottoman negotiations recognized Kuwait as an autonomous district under British protection, distinguishing it from the Ottoman territories that would later form Iraq.
Mubarak the Great and the British Agreement
Sources: Kuwait: History (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Persian Gulf States: Country Studies (Kuwait) (Library of Congress, Federal Research Division)
Europe
- ALB
Albania · Politics & Power · 1912-13
Conference of London and the borders
The Great Powers recognised an autonomous Albania but, pressed by its neighbours, drew borders leaving about half the Albanian-populated lands, including Kosovo, outside the state, creating the Albanian national question.
Independence, the Conference of London and the Albanian Question
Sources: Treaties of London (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Ismail Qemali Leads Albania to Independence, November 1912 (Radio Television of Albania (RTSH)) · History of Albania (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- BGR
Bulgaria · War & Rupture · Jun–Aug 1913
Second Balkan War and the loss of Macedonia
Bulgaria attacked its former allies over the division of Macedonia and was crushed by Serbia, Greece, Romania and the Ottomans; the Treaty of Bucharest left most of Macedonia to its rivals and Southern Dobruja to Romania.
The Balkan Wars, the World Wars and the Saving of the Jews
Sources: Second Balkan War (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Balkan Wars (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- MKD
North Macedonia · War & Rupture · 1912–1913
The Balkan Wars and the partition of Macedonia
The Balkan Wars ended Ottoman rule and divided historic Macedonia among Greece, Serbia and Bulgaria; the northern Vardar region passed to Serbia, becoming the core of the future republic.
Partition, 'Vardar Macedonia' and the Yugoslav Republic
Sources: Macedonia (region, Europe): Map, History & Facts (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · North Macedonia: History (Ancient, Ottoman, Yugoslav) (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
21 records
Africa
- CMR
Cameroon · War & Rupture · 1914–1916
The Kamerun campaign
British, French, and Belgian forces invaded German Kamerun from August 1914; after a prolonged campaign the last German garrison surrendered in early 1916.
German Kamerun
Sources: Kamerun campaign (1914–1916) (Wikipedia) · Cameroon (country overview and history) (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- GNQ
Equatorial Guinea · Economy & Trade
Liberian labour treaty for the cocoa plantations
A 1914 treaty brought contract labourers from Liberia to Fernando Pó's cocoa plantations; an ILO inquiry in 1930 found the recruitment had occurred under "criminal compulsion" akin to slave raiding, and the Liberian supply was cut off.
The British base and the Spanish cocoa colony
Sources: Spanish Guinea (Wikipedia) · History of Equatorial Guinea (Wikipedia)
- NGA
Nigeria · Colonisation · 1 January 1914
Amalgamation of Nigeria
Lord Lugard joined the Northern and Southern Protectorates into a single Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria, creating the territorial shape of the modern country under indirect rule.
British conquest, amalgamation and colonial Nigeria
Sources: Nigeria (country overview and history) (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · A Guide to the History of Recognition: Nigeria (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian)
- SEN
Senegal · Politics & Power
Blaise Diagne elected to the French parliament
Diagne becomes the first African deputy in the French National Assembly, representing the Four Communes.
French Conquest, the Four Communes and the Marabouts
Sources: Four Communes (Wikipedia) · Blaise Diagne (1872–1934) (BlackPast.org)
- TGO
Togo · War & Rupture · August 1914
Anglo-French conquest of Togoland
At the start of the First World War, British and French forces invaded German Togoland; after destroying the Kamina wireless station, the German garrison surrendered on 26 August 1914.
Conquest, partition and the mandates
Sources: Togoland (Wikipedia) · Togo (country overview and history) (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
Asia
- CYP
Cyprus · Colonisation
British annexation
When the Ottoman Empire joined the First World War against Britain, Britain annexed Cyprus; Turkey renounced its claim to the island in the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne.
British Rule, the Demand for Énosis and the EOKA Campaign
Sources: Cyprus: Ottoman rule (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Cyprus profile – Timeline (BBC News)
Europe
- AND
Andorra · War & Rupture · 1914–1918
Neutral through the First World War
Andorra remained outside the fighting of the Great War; an anomaly of its undefined status was that it was reportedly omitted from the peace settlement and stayed nominally at war for decades.
Reform, a Brief 'King', and the Strains of the Old Order
Sources: Andorra: History, Facts & Points of Interest (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Andorra: Member state (Council of Europe)
- AUT
Austria · War & Rupture · 28 Jun 1914
Assassination at Sarajevo
Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne, and his wife Sophie were assassinated in Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip, the spark that led Austria-Hungary to war.
The Dual Monarchy and the Catastrophe of 1918
Sources: Sarajevo and the July Crisis (Der Erste Weltkrieg (The First World War / habsburger.net))
- AUT
Austria · War & Rupture · 28 Jul 1914
Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia
After the July Crisis, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, triggering a chain of alliances that plunged Europe into the First World War.
The Dual Monarchy and the Catastrophe of 1918
Sources: Sarajevo and the July Crisis (Der Erste Weltkrieg (The First World War / habsburger.net))
- BEL
Belgium · War & Rupture · 4 Aug 1914
Germany invades neutral Belgium
Executing the Schlieffen Plan, Germany invaded Belgium after King Albert I refused free passage; the violation of the 1839 neutrality treaty, dismissed as a 'scrap of paper', brought Britain into the First World War.
The Two World Wars and the Gains of Versailles
Sources: The Treaty of London, 1839 (primary text) (FirstWorldWar.com Primary Documents) · Belgium: History (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- BEL
Belgium · War & Rupture · Oct 1914
The Battle of the Yser
Falling back behind the river Yser, the Belgian army opened the sluices and flooded the polders to halt the German advance, holding a last strip of free Belgium around Nieuwpoort and Diksmuide for the rest of the war.
The Two World Wars and the Gains of Versailles
Sources: Belgium: History (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- BIH
Bosnia and Herzegovina · War & Rupture · 28 Jun 1914
Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand
In Sarajevo, Gavrilo Princip of the Young Bosnia movement shot dead Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie, the act that triggered the outbreak of the First World War.
Habsburg Rule, Sarajevo 1914 and the Yugoslav Kingdom
Sources: Archduke Franz Ferdinand (Lumen Learning, History of Western Civilization II) · Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (research guide) (Library of Congress)
- DEU
- LUX
Luxembourg · War & Rupture · 2 Aug 1914
German invasion in the First World War
German forces occupied neutral Luxembourg on 2 August 1914 to control its railways for the advance on France, holding the country until November 1918 despite its formal protest.
Two World Wars and the End of Neutrality
Sources: Occupation of Luxembourg (1914-1918) (1914-1918-online International Encyclopedia of the First World War) · Luxembourg (1914-1918) (1914-1918-online International Encyclopedia of the First World War)
- SRB
Serbia · War & Rupture · 28 Jun 1914
Assassination at Sarajevo
The Bosnian Serb Gavrilo Princip assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo; Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia, and its declaration of war triggered the First World War.
The Serbian Revolution and the Road to Independence
Sources: Serbia: History (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- GBR
United Kingdom · War & Rupture · 1914–1918
The First World War
Britain and its empire fought in the First World War at enormous human cost; the war accelerated social and political change, including votes for women, and led to the partition of Ireland and the Irish Free State in 1922.
World wars, decolonisation, and the modern UK
Sources: The end of the British Empire after the Second World War (Imperial War Museums) · Act of Union (United Kingdom, 1801) (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
North America
- CAN
Canada · War & Rupture · 1914–1918
Canada in the First World War
Canada fought in the First World War as part of the British Empire but as a distinct national force; the costly victory at Vimy Ridge in 1917 became a symbol of emerging nationhood.
The World Wars and growing autonomy
Sources: The Battle of Vimy Ridge (Veterans Affairs Canada) · Canada (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- JAM
Jamaica · Politics & Power · 1914 CE
Garvey founds the UNIA
Marcus Garvey establishes the Universal Negro Improvement Association, building the largest Pan-African movement of its age.
Crown Colony, Morant Bay, and Garvey
Sources: Marcus Garvey (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- PAN
Panama · Economy & Trade · 15 Aug 1914
Panama Canal opens
After a decade of U.S. construction, the lock canal opens to traffic, joining the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.
The Canal and the Zone
Sources: Building the Panama Canal, 1903-1914 (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian) · Panama (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
South America
- FLK
Falkland Islands · War & Rupture · December 1914
Battle of the Falkland Islands
A British naval squadron destroyed a German cruiser force off the islands in an early First World War engagement, underscoring their strategic position near Cape Horn.
The Pastoral Colony of Sheep and Wool
Sources: Battle of the Falkland Islands (1914) (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
Oceania
- PNG
Papua New Guinea · War & Rupture · September 1914
Australia occupies German New Guinea
At the outbreak of the First World War, Australian forces seized German New Guinea, ending German colonial rule in the region.
Australian rule and the highland 'first contact'
Sources: Papua New Guinea — The colonial period (Encyclopædia Britannica) · British New Guinea and German New Guinea (The National Archives (UK))
9 records
Africa
- MWI
Malawi · Politics & Power · February 1915
Chilembwe killed
John Chilembwe was shot dead as he fled toward Mozambique; though the rising failed, he became an enduring symbol of Malawian nationalism and is honoured as a national martyr.
Protectorate, Nyasaland and the Chilembwe rising
Sources: John Chilembwe (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · John Chilembwe (ca. 1871–1915) (BlackPast.org)
- MWI
Malawi · War & Rupture · 23 January 1915
The Chilembwe rising
Reverend John Chilembwe led an uprising against colonial rule, forced labour and wartime conscription; his followers attacked the A. L. Bruce estate at Magomero and killed William Jervis Livingstone before British forces swiftly suppressed the revolt.
Protectorate, Nyasaland and the Chilembwe rising
Sources: John Chilembwe (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · John Chilembwe (ca. 1871–1915) (BlackPast.org) · John Chilembwe (Wikipedia)
- NAM
Namibia · War & Rupture · July 1915
South Africa conquers the colony
South African forces invaded German South West Africa during the First World War and forced the German garrison to surrender, beginning seventy-five years of South African rule.
South African rule, the mandate, and apartheid
Sources: Namibia (country, history and government) (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · History of Namibia (Wikipedia)
Asia
- ARM
Armenia · Catastrophe · 1915–1916
The Armenian Genocide
From 24 April 1915 the Ottoman Young Turk government deported and massacred the empire's Armenian population in death marches toward the Syrian desert; widely recognised as the first genocide of the 20th century, with deaths estimated from roughly 600,000 to as many as 1.5 million.
Empires, the Genocide and the First Republic
Sources: The Armenian Genocide (1915–16): In Depth (United States Holocaust Memorial Museum) · Armenian Genocide (Encyclopædia Britannica)
- TUR
Türkiye · War & Rupture · 1915–1916
Gallipoli campaign
Ottoman forces repelled an Allied attempt to seize the Dardanelles; the defence brought the officer Mustafa Kemal to national prominence.
World War I, the Armenian Genocide and the War of Independence
Sources: Kemal Atatürk (Encyclopædia Britannica)
- TUR
Türkiye · War & Rupture · 1915–1916
The Armenian Genocide
From 24 April 1915 the Ottoman government deported and massacred its Armenian population in death marches and killings across Anatolia and into the Syrian desert; most historians recognise these events as genocide, with deaths estimated from roughly 600,000 to 1.5 million.
World War I, the Armenian Genocide and the War of Independence
Sources: The Armenian Genocide (1915–16): In Depth (United States Holocaust Memorial Museum) · Armenian Genocide (Encyclopædia Britannica)
North America
- HTI
Haiti · War & Rupture · 1915-1934
United States occupation
U.S. Marines occupy Haiti for nineteen years, controlling its finances and building infrastructure amid widespread resentment and resistance.
Occupation and Dictatorship
Sources: U.S. Invasion and Occupation of Haiti, 1915-34 (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian)
Oceania
- AUS
Australia · War & Rupture · 25 April 1915
Gallipoli landing and the Anzac legend
Australian and New Zealand troops landed at Gallipoli in a costly campaign that, despite ending in withdrawal, became a foundational national story commemorated each year on Anzac Day.
The world wars, immigration, and the twentieth century
Sources: The Immigration Restriction Act and the Anzacs (Australian War Memorial) · Australia (country) (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- NZL
New Zealand · War & Rupture · 25 April 1915
Gallipoli and the Anzac legend
New Zealand and Australian troops landed at Gallipoli, a costly campaign that, despite ending in withdrawal, became a foundational national story commemorated each year on Anzac Day.
Nationhood, the world wars, and the welfare state
Sources: New Zealand (country) (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
13 records
Africa
- BDI
Burundi · Colonisation
Belgian conquest of Urundi
Belgian forces invade Urundi during the First World War, ending German control and beginning Belgian administration of the territory.
Ruanda-Urundi: German and Belgian Rule
Sources: Ruanda-Urundi (Wikipedia) · History of Burundi (Wikipedia)
- NER
Niger · War & Rupture · 1916–1917
The Kaocen revolt at Agadez
During the First World War the Tuareg leader Kaocen led a major revolt against French rule, besieging the garrison at Agadez before the rising was crushed.
Conquest, the Voulet-Chanoine column and colonial Niger
Sources: History of Niger (Wikipedia) · Niger (country) (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- RWA
Rwanda · Colonisation
Belgium occupies Rwanda
Belgian forces take Rwanda from Germany during the First World War; from 1922 it is governed with Burundi as Ruanda-Urundi under a League of Nations mandate.
German and Belgian Rule
Sources: History of Rwanda (Wikipedia) · Divided by Ethnicity (United States Holocaust Memorial Museum)
- SEN
Senegal · Politics & Power
The Diagne Law confirms citizenship
Diagne secures a law affirming the originaires of the Four Communes as full French citizens who may retain Muslim personal status.
French Conquest, the Four Communes and the Marabouts
Sources: Four Communes (Wikipedia) · Blaise Diagne (1872–1934) (BlackPast.org)
Asia
- CHN
China · War & Rupture · 1916 CE
Warlord Era of political fragmentation
The death of Yuan Shikai in 1916 plunges China into the Warlord Era, with regional militarists ruling much of the country until the Nationalists reassert partial unity by 1928.
The Fall of the Empire: Republic, Warlords, and War
Sources: China (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- JOR
Jordan · War & Rupture · June 1916
The Great Arab Revolt begins
Sharif Hussein of Mecca, supported by Britain, launched the Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire; his sons Faisal and Abdullah led its forces toward Syria, aided by T. E. Lawrence.
The Arab Revolt, the Emirate of Transjordan and Independence
Sources: Great Arab Revolt Begins (EBSCO Research Starters) · Abdullah I: Biography, History, and Assassination (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- KGZ
Kyrgyzstan · War & Rupture
The 1916 revolt (Urkun)
A decree conscripting Central Asians for wartime labour triggered a revolt across Russian Turkestan; in the Kyrgyz lands it was suppressed with great violence, and tens of thousands fled toward China, with heavy loss of life. Casualty figures remain estimates.
The Khanate of Kokand and the Russian Conquest
Sources: Kyrgyzstan: Victims Of 1916 'Urkun' Tragedy Commemorated (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty) · Kyrgyzstan: A Country Study (in Kazakstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan: Country Studies) (U.S. Library of Congress, Federal Research Division)
- QAT
Qatar · Colonisation · 3 November 1916
Anglo-Qatari Treaty: British protectorate
Sheikh Abdullah bin Jassim signed a treaty (ratified 1918) placing Qatar under British protection in exchange for foregoing relations and concessions with other powers without British consent.
Between the Ottomans and Britain: The 1916 Protectorate
Sources: Text of the Treaty of 3 November 1916 between His Majesty's Government and Sheikh Abdullah bin Jassim of al-Katar (Qatar Digital Library / British Library India Office Records) · Qatar: History (Persian Gulf, Oil, Gas) (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
Europe
- IRL
Ireland · War & Rupture · 24 Apr 1916
The Easter Rising
Republicans seized the General Post Office and other Dublin sites and proclaimed an Irish Republic; the rising was suppressed within a week, but the execution of its leaders turned opinion towards independence.
Rising, Independence and Partition
Sources: Irish History Timeline – From 1916 to Today (GPO Witness History Museum, Dublin)
- MNE
Montenegro · War & Rupture · Jan 1916
Battle of Mojkovac and Austro-Hungarian occupation
The Montenegrin army won the Battle of Mojkovac (7-8 January 1916) to cover the Serbian retreat, but the kingdom was overrun and occupied by Austria-Hungary, and King Nikola I fled into exile.
War, the Podgorica Assembly and Yugoslav Montenegro
Sources: Montenegro (First World War) (1914-1918-Online International Encyclopedia of the First World War) · Frantisek Sistek, 'The Contested Memory of the First World War in Montenegro' (Battle of Mojkovac, January 1916), Traditiones 47/1 (2018), 63-86 (Traditiones (ZRC SAZU, Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts))
- ROU
Romania · War & Rupture
Romania enters the First World War
Romania joined the Allies in 1916 seeking the Romanian lands of Austria-Hungary, especially Transylvania; despite early defeats, the collapse of the empires opened the way to union.
Greater Romania: the Great War and the union of Transylvania
Sources: Treaty of Trianon (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
North America
- DOM
Dominican Republic · War & Rupture · 1916-1924
U.S. military occupation
The United States occupies the Dominican Republic, governing it for eight years, suppressing an eastern insurgency, and creating the national guard from which Trujillo would emerge.
U.S. Occupation and the Trujillo Era
Sources: Dominican Republic, 1916-1924 (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian) · History of the Dominican Republic (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
South America
- ARG
13 records
Africa
- DJI
Djibouti · Economy & Trade
Railway reaches Addis Ababa
The line is completed to Addis Ababa, giving landlocked Ethiopia its main outlet to the sea and confirming Djibouti as the entrepôt for Ethiopian trade.
The Railway and the Colony of French Somaliland
Sources: Ethio-Djibouti Railways (Wikipedia) · 100-year-old Ethiopia's French-built railway remains vital for residents (Africanews) · Djibouti (country and history) (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
Asia
- PSE
Palestine · Colonisation · 2 November 1917
Balfour Declaration
Britain declared its support for a Jewish national home in Palestine while affirming the rights of the existing, overwhelmingly Arab, non-Jewish communities.
The British Mandate and the Nakba
Sources: Origins and Evolution of the Palestine Problem, Part I (1917-1947) (United Nations) · Balfour Declaration (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
Europe
- FIN
Finland · Independence · 6 Dec 1917
Declaration of independence
The Parliament of Finland approved a declaration of independence amid the turmoil of the Russian Revolution, ending more than a century as an autonomous Grand Duchy of the Russian Empire.
Independence and the Finnish Civil War
Sources: History of Finland (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Main outlines of Finnish history (thisisFINLAND (Finland Promotion Board))
- FIN
Finland · Independence · 31 Dec 1917
Soviet Russia recognises Finland
Lenin's Bolshevik government formally recognised Finnish independence on the last day of 1917, calculating that it could not retain the periphery of the former empire.
Independence and the Finnish Civil War
Sources: History of Finland (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · History of Finland (InfoFinland (Finnish public authorities))
- MDA
Moldova · Independence · 15 Dec 1917
Moldavian Democratic Republic proclaimed
After the Russian Revolution, the Sfatul Tarii (national council) in Chisinau proclaimed the Moldavian Democratic Republic, soon declaring full independence from Russia amid the turmoil of 1917-1918.
Union with Romania and the Soviet Creation of a Moldavian Republic
Sources: Moldova: History (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Union of 27 March 1918: the National Archive Agency provides access to the Sfatul Tarii collection (Moldpres (Moldova State News Agency))
- RUS
Russia · Politics & Power · 15 March 1917
February Revolution and the abdication of Nicholas II
Bread riots, strikes, and a garrison mutiny in Petrograd force Nicholas II to abdicate, ending the Romanov dynasty and over three centuries of tsarist rule; a Provisional Government takes power alongside the Petrograd Soviet.
Revolution and the Fall of the Romanovs
Sources: Russian Revolution (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Nicholas II, Emperor of Russia (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- RUS
Russia · Politics & Power · 7 November 1917
The October Revolution
Lenin's Bolsheviks overthrow the Provisional Government in a near-bloodless coup in Petrograd, proclaim a government of soviets, and establish the world's first communist state, withdrawing Russia from the First World War.
Revolution and the Fall of the Romanovs
Sources: Russian Revolution (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- UKR
Ukraine · Formation · Nov 1917
Ukrainian People's Republic proclaimed
Amid the Russian Revolution, the Central Rada in Kyiv under Mykhailo Hrushevsky proclaimed the Ukrainian People's Republic, the first modern Ukrainian state.
National Awakening and the Ukrainian People's Republic
Sources: Ukraine: World War I and the struggle for independence (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · History of Ukraine (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
North America
- CAN
- PRI
Puerto Rico · Politics & Power · 2 Mar 1917
Jones-Shafroth Act grants citizenship
Congress collectively confers U.S. citizenship on Puerto Ricans and restructures the island's government, but without the federal vote.
Under the United States: Citizenship and a New Order
Sources: 1917: Jones-Shafroth Act (Library of Congress) · Jones-Shafroth Act (Encyclopædia Britannica)
- TTO
Trinidad and Tobago · Peoples & Migration
End of Indian indentureship
The indentured labour system was abolished in 1917, by which time roughly 147,000 Indians had come to Trinidad, the majority remaining to build the Indo-Trinidadian community.
Indenture, oil, and one colony
Sources: The beginning of Indian Indentureship in Trinidad (National Trust of Trinidad and Tobago) · Indian Arrival Day (National Library and Information System Authority (NALIS), Trinidad and Tobago)
South America
- GUY
Guyana · Peoples & Migration
End of Indian indenture
Indentured immigration from India is brought to a close after some 250,000 people have come to British Guiana, leaving Indo-Guyanese the colony's largest ethnic group.
British Guiana: Emancipation and Indenture
Sources: Guyana and Belize: Country Studies (U.S. Library of Congress, Federal Research Division) · Guyana — History (Colonialism, Independence, Culture) (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- URY
Uruguay · Politics & Power · 1917 CE
A new welfare constitution
A reformed constitution entrenches the secular, democratic and social character of the Batllista republic, including a plural executive to check one-man power.
Batlle y Ordonez and the Model Country
Sources: Jose Batlle y Ordonez (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Uruguay (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
31 records
Asia
- ARM
Armenia · Independence · 28 May 1918
First Republic of Armenia
As the Russian Empire collapsed, Armenians of the Caucasus declared an independent Republic of Armenia with its capital at Yerevan, the first modern Armenian state.
Empires, the Genocide and the First Republic
Sources: Armenia — Caucasus, Soviet Union, Genocide (Modern Armenia) (Encyclopædia Britannica)
- AZE
Azerbaijan · Independence · 28 May 1918
Azerbaijan Democratic Republic declared
On 28 May 1918 Azerbaijan declared independence under Musavat leadership, founding the first secular parliamentary republic in the Muslim world, with Mammad Amin Rasulzade among its leaders.
The Baku oil boom and the 1918 republic
Sources: Azerbaijan: Russian suzerainty and the road to independence (Encyclopædia Britannica) · Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia: Country Studies (ed. Glenn E. Curtis) (Library of Congress, Federal Research Division)
- GEO
Georgia · Independence · 26 May 1918
Democratic Republic of Georgia proclaimed
Amid the collapse of the Russian Empire, Georgia proclaimed an independent democratic republic governed by Mensheviks, with a democratic constitution and land reform.
Republic, Soviet Conquest and the Georgian SSR
Sources: Georgia: Independent Georgia (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · History of Georgia (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- SYR
Syria · War & Rupture · 1918 CE
End of Ottoman rule
During the First World War the Arab Revolt and Allied forces drive the Ottomans from Syria, ending four hundred years of Ottoman dominion and opening the way to French and British arrangements for the region.
Saladin, the Mamluks and Ottoman Rule
Sources: Syria — history (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · A Guide to the History of Recognition, Diplomatic, and Consular Relations: Syria (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian)
- YEM
Yemen · Independence
Independent kingdom of North Yemen
With the Ottoman defeat in the First World War and withdrawal from Yemen, Imam Yahya established the independent Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen across the northern highlands.
The Two Yemens: Revolution and Independence
Sources: Yemen: History (ancient kingdoms, Islam, the imamate, unification and war) (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · A Guide to the United States' History of Recognition, Diplomatic, and Consular Relations, by Country, since 1776: Yemen (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian)
Europe
- AUT
Austria · Independence · 12 Nov 1918
Collapse of Austria-Hungary and the First Republic
As the war was lost the empire disintegrated; Emperor Karl I renounced participation in government on 11 November and the Republic of German-Austria was proclaimed on 12 November 1918, ending Habsburg rule.
The Dual Monarchy and the Catastrophe of 1918
Sources: The End of Monarchy, the Birth of New States (Der Erste Weltkrieg (The First World War / habsburger.net))
- BLR
Belarus · Independence · 25 Mar 1918
Belarusian People's Republic proclaimed
Under German occupation, the Rada in Minsk proclaimed the independence of the Belarusian People's Republic, the first modern declaration of Belarusian statehood, though it never controlled the territory and was soon driven into exile.
People's Republic, Soviet Republic and Terror
Sources: Belarus: The emergence of the Belorussian S.S.R. (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · History of Belarus (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- BIH
Bosnia and Herzegovina · Politics & Power
Bosnia joins the Yugoslav kingdom
With Austria-Hungary's collapse, Bosnia was incorporated into the new Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, later renamed Yugoslavia, losing its separate administrative identity.
Habsburg Rule, Sarajevo 1914 and the Yugoslav Kingdom
Sources: Bosnia and Herzegovina: History (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- HRV
Croatia · Politics & Power · 1 Dec 1918
Entry into the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes
After the collapse of Austria-Hungary, the Croatian lands joined Serbia and Montenegro in the new South Slav kingdom proclaimed on 1 December 1918, later renamed Yugoslavia.
Yugoslavia, the Ustase Catastrophe and Socialist Croatia
Sources: Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Croatia: History (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- CZE
Czechia · Formation · 28 Oct 1918
Foundation of Czechoslovakia
With Austria-Hungary collapsing, independence was proclaimed in Prague on 28 October 1918; Tomas Garrigue Masaryk became the first president of the new multi-ethnic democratic republic.
Czechoslovakia, the Munich Betrayal and Nazi Occupation
Sources: Tomas Masaryk (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Foundation of Czechoslovakia (National Museum, Prague (Google Arts & Culture))
- EST
Estonia · Independence · 24 Feb 1918
Declaration of Independence
The Salvation Committee proclaimed the independent Republic of Estonia and appointed a provisional government under Konstantin Päts, the founding act of the Estonian state.
Independence, the War of Independence and the First Republic
Sources: Estonia celebrates Independence Day: How was freedom declared in 1918? (ERR (Estonian Public Broadcasting)) · Estonia: History (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- EST
Estonia · War & Rupture · 1918–1920
The War of Independence
The Estonian army, with Finnish, British and other allied support, repelled the Soviet Red Army and the Baltic German Landeswehr, securing the survival of the new republic.
Independence, the War of Independence and the First Republic
Sources: Estonia celebrates Independence Day: How was freedom declared in 1918? (ERR (Estonian Public Broadcasting)) · Estonia: History (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- FIN
Finland · War & Rupture · Jan–May 1918
The Finnish Civil War
From late January to 15 May 1918 Finland was convulsed by civil war between socialist Reds and conservative Whites under Mannerheim; the Whites won, but some 36,600 died, many in executions and prison camps.
Independence and the Finnish Civil War
Sources: How Finland found a road to reconciliation after the Civil War of 1918 (thisisFINLAND (Finland Promotion Board)) · History of Finland (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- DEU
Germany · Politics & Power · 9 Nov 1918
Abdication of Wilhelm II
Amid military collapse and revolution, Emperor Wilhelm II abdicated and a republic was proclaimed in Berlin; the armistice followed two days later, ending the war and the monarchy.
The German Empire and the First World War
Sources: Germany (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- HUN
Hungary · Politics & Power
Collapse of Austria-Hungary
Defeat in the First World War destroyed the Dual Monarchy; amid revolution Hungary passed through a democratic republic and a brief communist regime before the conservative order of Regent Horthy.
Trianon and the Shrinking of Hungary
Sources: Treaty of Trianon (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Hungary: The Dual Monarchy, 1867-1918 (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- ISL
Iceland · Independence · 1 Dec 1918
The Act of Union and the Kingdom of Iceland
The Danish-Icelandic Act of Union made Iceland a sovereign state in personal union with the Danish crown, with Denmark retaining foreign affairs and the union open to termination after twenty-five years.
National Awakening, Home Rule and Sovereignty
Sources: Act of Union (Iceland, 1918) (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · History of Iceland, 1840s to the Second World War (nordics.info (Aarhus University))
- LVA
Latvia · Independence · 18 Nov 1918
Proclamation of the Republic of Latvia
As the empires collapsed at the end of the First World War, the People's Council of Latvia proclaimed an independent, democratic Republic of Latvia in Riga.
National Awakening, Independence and the First Republic
Sources: Latvia: History (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · History of Latvia (Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Latvia) · May 4th: Latvia's Path to Independence (Latvia.eu (Latvian Institute))
- LTU
Lithuania · Independence · 16 Feb 1918
Act of Independence
The Council of Lithuania in Vilnius proclaimed the restoration of an independent State of Lithuania on democratic principles, with Vilnius as its capital, severing all former ties to other states.
Independence and the Interwar Territorial Disputes
Sources: Seimas in the Republic of Lithuania of 1920–1940 (Act of Independence of 16 February 1918) (Seimas of the Republic of Lithuania (lrs.lt)) · History of Lithuania (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- MDA
Moldova · Politics & Power · 27 Mar 1918
Union of Bessarabia with Romania
The Sfatul Tarii voted to unite Bessarabia with Romania (27 March, Old Style; 9 April, New Style); the union, at first conditional on autonomy, was made unconditional in November 1918.
Union with Romania and the Soviet Creation of a Moldavian Republic
Sources: Union of 27 March 1918: the National Archive Agency provides access to the Sfatul Tarii collection (Moldpres (Moldova State News Agency)) · Moldova: History (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- MCO
Monaco · Politics & Power · 17 July 1918
Franco-Monégasque Treaty of 1918
Signed amid a succession crisis, the treaty aligned Monaco's policy with French interests and provided that the principality would fall under French protection should the Grimaldi line end; it was noted in the 1919 Treaty of Versailles.
Sovereignty Tied to France and the Making of the Modern Principality
Sources: The history of Monaco's accession (Permanent Representation of Monaco to the Council of Europe (gouv.mc)) · Monaco (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- MNE
Montenegro · Politics & Power · Nov 1918
The Podgorica Assembly
An assembly in Podgorica deposed King Nikola I and the Petrovic-Njegos dynasty and proclaimed the unconditional union of Montenegro with Serbia in the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes.
War, the Podgorica Assembly and Yugoslav Montenegro
Sources: Montenegro (First World War) (1914-1918-Online International Encyclopedia of the First World War) · Montenegro: History (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- MKD
North Macedonia · Politics & Power
Vardar Macedonia within Yugoslavia
After the First World War the Vardar region was incorporated into the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later Yugoslavia), where it was administered as part of Serbia and its Slavic identity discouraged.
Partition, 'Vardar Macedonia' and the Yugoslav Republic
Sources: North Macedonia: History (Ancient, Ottoman, Yugoslav) (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- POL
Poland · Independence · 11 Nov 1918
Restoration of independence
As the partitioning empires collapsed at the end of the First World War, an independent Polish state was proclaimed under Jozef Pilsudski, ending 123 years without statehood.
The Partitions and the Long Fight for Independence
Sources: History of Poland (1795-1918) (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Partitions of Poland (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- ROU
Romania · Politics & Power
Greater Romania
With Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania joined to the kingdom, Romania nearly doubled in size, gaining large Hungarian and German minorities within its enlarged borders.
Greater Romania: the Great War and the union of Transylvania
Sources: Treaty of Trianon (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Romania (United States Holocaust Memorial Museum)
- ROU
Romania · Formation · 1 Dec 1918
Union of Transylvania with Romania
A great national assembly of Romanians at Alba Iulia proclaimed the union of Transylvania with the Kingdom of Romania, the central act in the creation of Greater Romania.
Greater Romania: the Great War and the union of Transylvania
Sources: Treaty of Trianon (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- RUS
Russia · Politics & Power · 17 July 1918
Execution of the Romanov family
Bolshevik guards shoot and bayonet the deposed Nicholas II, his wife, their five children, and their servants in a cellar in Yekaterinburg, eliminating any rallying point for the monarchist cause.
Revolution and the Fall of the Romanovs
Sources: Nicholas II, Emperor of Russia (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Russian Revolution (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- RUS
Russia · War & Rupture · 1918-1922
The Russian Civil War
Trotsky's Red Army battles the anti-communist Whites, foreign interventionists, and nationalist forces in a devastating civil war marked by the Red Terror and mass famine, leaving millions dead before the Bolsheviks prevail.
Revolution and the Fall of the Romanovs
Sources: Russian Revolution (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Russia (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- SRB
Serbia · Formation · 1 Dec 1918
Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes proclaimed
Prince Regent Alexander proclaimed the South Slav kingdom in Belgrade, uniting Serbia and Montenegro with former Habsburg lands under the Serbian crown; it was renamed Yugoslavia in 1929.
The Birth of Yugoslavia and the World Wars
Sources: Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Serbia in the Yugoslav kingdom (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- SVK
Slovakia · Formation · 28–30 Oct 1918
Czechoslovakia and the Martin Declaration
Czechoslovakia was declared in Prague on 28 October 1918; on 30 October the Slovak National Council endorsed the union in the Martin Declaration, giving the Slovaks their first modern statehood alongside the Czechs.
Czechoslovakia, the Slovak State and the Uprising
Sources: Czechoslovakia (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · History of Slovakia (Slovakia.travel (official tourism portal))
- SVN
Slovenia · Formation · 1 Dec 1918
Birth of the Yugoslav kingdom
After the brief State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs, the Slovene lands joined the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, proclaimed on 1 December 1918 and renamed the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929.
Into Yugoslavia: War, Partition and Contested Borders
Sources: Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Slovenia since 1918 (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- UKR
Ukraine · Independence · 22 Jan 1918
Declaration of independence
The Central Rada's Fourth Universal proclaimed the full independence of the Ukrainian People's Republic from Russia, as German, Bolshevik and other forces contested the country.
National Awakening and the Ukrainian People's Republic
Sources: Ukraine: World War I and the struggle for independence (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
17 records
Africa
- BFA
Burkina Faso · Colonisation · 1 March 1919
Colony of Upper Volta created
France establishes the separate colony of Upper Volta (Haute-Volta) within French West Africa.
Conquest and the Colony of Upper Volta
Sources: French Upper Volta (Wikipedia) · Background Notes: Burkina Faso (U.S. Department of State)
- CMR
Cameroon · Colonisation · 1919–1922
Partition into French and British mandates
The League of Nations divided the former German colony between France, which took the larger French Cameroun, and Britain, which administered the Northern and Southern Cameroons alongside Nigeria.
Partition: French Cameroun and British Cameroons
Sources: Cameroon (country overview and history) (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · A Guide to the History of Recognition: Cameroon (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian) · History of Cameroon (Wikipedia)
- TZA
Tanzania · Colonisation · 1919–1922
Tanganyika becomes a British mandate
After the First World War the Treaty of Versailles strips Germany of the colony; Britain administers the mainland as the Tanganyika Territory under a League of Nations mandate from 1922.
German East Africa and the British Mandate
Sources: German East Africa (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Tanganyika Territory (Wikipedia)
Asia
- AFG
Afghanistan · Independence
Independence and the Treaty of Rawalpindi
Amir Amanullah Khan repudiates British control of foreign affairs and, after the Third Anglo-Afghan War, secures the Treaty of Rawalpindi (8 August 1919) recognising Afghan control of its own foreign relations.
Independence, Monarchy and the Republic
Sources: Anglo-Afghan Wars — History, Significance & Facts (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Third Afghan War and the Revolt in Waziristan (National Army Museum (UK))
- KOR
South Korea · Politics & Power · April 1919
Korean Provisional Government formed
Korean nationalists establish a Provisional Government in exile in Shanghai to coordinate the independence struggle against Japanese rule.
Japanese Colonial Rule
Sources: Korea Under Japanese Rule (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Korea (history) (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- KOR
South Korea · Independence · 1 March 1919
March First Movement
A Declaration of Independence sparks nationwide demonstrations by some two million Koreans; the peaceful protests are violently suppressed with thousands killed.
Japanese Colonial Rule
Sources: March First Movement (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Korea Under Japanese Rule (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- TUR
Türkiye · Independence · 1919–1922
Turkish War of Independence
Mustafa Kemal led a national resistance and a new Grand National Assembly in Ankara, defeating Greek, Armenian and French forces and ending the Allied occupation of Anatolia.
World War I, the Armenian Genocide and the War of Independence
Sources: Kemal Atatürk (Encyclopædia Britannica)
Europe
- AUT
Austria · Politics & Power
South Tyrol ceded to Italy
Under Saint-Germain the German-speaking southern part of historic Tyrol was awarded to Italy, placing a large German-speaking population under Italian rule and creating a lasting territorial grievance.
The First Republic, Saint-Germain and the Anschluss
Sources: 1919: Treaty of Saint-Germain (Haus der Geschichte Österreich (House of Austrian History)) · De Gasperi-Gruber Agreement and the First Statute of Autonomy (Provincia autonoma di Trento)
- AUT
Austria · Politics & Power · 10 Sep 1919
Treaty of Saint-Germain
Signed for Austria by Karl Renner, the treaty confirmed the breakup of Austria-Hungary, forbade union with Germany without League of Nations approval, limited Austria's army and ceded South Tyrol to Italy.
The First Republic, Saint-Germain and the Anschluss
Sources: 1919: Treaty of Saint-Germain (Haus der Geschichte Österreich (House of Austrian History))
- BLR
Belarus · Formation · 1 Jan 1919
Founding of the Byelorussian SSR
As the Germans withdrew, the Bolsheviks announced the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic; in 1922 it became one of the four founding republics of the Soviet Union.
People's Republic, Soviet Republic and Terror
Sources: Belarus: The emergence of the Belorussian S.S.R. (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- BEL
Belgium · Politics & Power · 1919–1920
Versailles: Eupen-Malmedy and the end of Moresnet
The Treaty of Versailles ended Belgian neutrality, abolished Neutral Moresnet and transferred Eupen, Malmedy and Sankt Vith from Germany to Belgium, giving the kingdom a German-speaking minority after a much-criticised popular consultation in 1920.
The Two World Wars and the Gains of Versailles
Sources: Eupen-Malmedy (transfer to Belgium under the Treaty of Versailles) (1914-1918-Online International Encyclopedia of the First World War) · 100 years ago Belgium annexed Europe's second smallest territory (Neutral Moresnet) (VRT NWS (Flemish public broadcaster)) · Eupen-et-Malmédy (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- FIN
Finland · Politics & Power
Republican constitution
Finland adopted a republican constitution in 1919, establishing a parliamentary republic with a strong presidency rather than the monarchy that conservatives had briefly favoured after the civil war.
Independence and the Finnish Civil War
Sources: History of Finland (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- DEU
Germany · Politics & Power
The Weimar Republic and its constitution
Germany's first democracy adopted the Weimar Constitution in 1919, establishing a parliamentary republic that would be undermined by economic crisis and political extremism.
Weimar, the Third Reich and the Second World War
Sources: The Weimar Republic (1918–1933) (German Bundestag)
- IRL
Ireland · War & Rupture · 1919–1921
War of Independence
After Sinn Féin's 1918 victory and the first Dáil in 1919, the IRA waged a guerrilla war against British forces until a truce on 11 July 1921 opened the way to negotiations.
Rising, Independence and Partition
Sources: Irish History Timeline – From 1916 to Today (GPO Witness History Museum, Dublin)
- LUX
Luxembourg · Politics & Power · Jan 1919
Abdication of Marie-Adelaide
Criticised for her conduct under the German occupation, Grand Duchess Marie-Adelaide abdicated in January 1919 in favour of her sister Charlotte, who reigned until 1964.
Two World Wars and the End of Neutrality
Sources: Occupation of Luxembourg (1914-1918) (1914-1918-online International Encyclopedia of the First World War) · The history of the Nassau dynasty (Cour grand-ducale (Grand Ducal Court of Luxembourg))
- MNE
Montenegro · War & Rupture · Jan 1919
The Christmas Uprising and the Greens-Whites split
Pro-independence 'Greens' rose against the union proclaimed at Podgorica but were defeated by the unionist 'Whites', a schism over Montenegro's statehood that endured for generations.
War, the Podgorica Assembly and Yugoslav Montenegro
Sources: Montenegro (First World War) (1914-1918-Online International Encyclopedia of the First World War) · Frantisek Sistek, 'The Contested Memory of the First World War in Montenegro' (Battle of Mojkovac, January 1916), Traditiones 47/1 (2018), 63-86 (Traditiones (ZRC SAZU, Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts))
South America
- PER
Peru · Politics & Power · 1919-1930
The Leguia era
Augusto Leguia governs Peru for eleven increasingly authoritarian years, promoting public works and a new constitution before falling in the Depression.
The Young Republic and the War of the Pacific
Sources: Peru: History (Encyclopaedia Britannica)