Montenegro

The earliest medieval state on the territory of modern Montenegro was Duklja, a South Slavic principality stretching from the Bay of Kotor to the river Bojana and inland to the sources of the Zeta and Moraca. In 1042 Stefan Vojislav led a successful revolt that secured Duklja's independence from the Byzantine Empire and founded the Vojislavljevic dynasty. His successor Mihailo became the first ruler of the region to bear the title of king, the honour bestowed on him in 1077 by Pope Gregory VII, head of the Roman Catholic Church.

From the twelfth century Duklja was drawn into the orbit of the rising Serbian state, becoming a crown land of the Grand Principality of Serbia under the Nemanjic dynasty and increasingly known as Zeta. After the disintegration of the Serbian Empire in the later fourteenth century, an independent Principality of Zeta re-emerged, ruled by the House of Balsic between 1356 and 1421 and then by the House of Crnojevic from 1431. It was under the Crnojevic that the name Montenegro, the 'Black Mountain', came into use for the country in the late fifteenth century.

The Crnojevic capital at Cetinje, established in the harsh mountain interior as Ottoman pressure grew, became the seat of both princely power and the Orthodox metropolitanate. There Djurdje Crnojevic, ruler of Zeta, founded the first printing house among the South Slavs: a press with movable type acquired in Venice produced, on 4 January 1494, the Oktoih (Octoechos), the first Cyrillic book printed in southeastern Europe. The press closed around 1496 when Crnojevic left the country before the advancing Ottomans, who by the end of the century had reduced Zeta to a remnant clinging to the mountains.

Turning points

1. 1042Formation

   Duklja wins independence from Byzantium

   Stefan Vojislav led a revolt that freed the principality of Duklja from Byzantine control and established the Vojislavljevic dynasty, the first medieval state on the territory of Montenegro.

   [1] [3]

2. 1077Politics & Power

   Mihailo crowned king of Duklja

   Mihailo of Duklja became the first ruler of the region to bear the royal title, the crown bestowed on him by Pope Gregory VII, marking Duklja's standing among Christian states.

   [1] [3]

3. 1356–1421Formation

   Principality of Zeta under the Balsic

   After the fall of the Serbian Empire an independent Zeta emerged, ruled by the House of Balsic and then from 1431 by the House of Crnojevic, under whom the name Montenegro came into use.

   [1] [3]

4. 4 Jan 1494Culture & Ideas

   The Oktoih and the Crnojevic printing press

   Djurdje Crnojevic founded the first South Slavic printing house at Cetinje, which produced the Oktoih, the first Cyrillic book printed in southeastern Europe, before closing around 1496 amid the Ottoman advance.

   [4] [1]

Figures of the era

As Ottoman power swept over the Balkans, the inhabitants of the Montenegrin highlands preserved a fierce autonomy that no neighbouring empire fully extinguished. Authority came to rest with the Orthodox bishops of Cetinje, later metropolitans, who from 1516 combined spiritual and temporal leadership in a theocratic Prince-Bishopric, the office of vladika. For nearly two centuries the position was elective, but in 1696 Metropolitan Danilo Petrovic-Njegos secured the right to nominate his own successor, founding the Petrovic-Njegos dynasty that would rule Montenegro until 1918. Because Orthodox prelates were celibate, the title passed from uncle to nephew.

From its mountain stronghold the Prince-Bishopric became famous for armed defiance of the Ottoman Empire, raiding and being raided across a hostile frontier and cultivating ties with Orthodox Russia as a protector. Successive vladikas, among them Vasilije and the long-lived Petar I, who was later canonised, consolidated the tribes, codified rudimentary law and held the high country against repeated Ottoman expeditions. The state's survival depended less on formal institutions than on the warrior ethos of the clans and the unifying authority of the bishop-prince at Cetinje.

The most celebrated of the prince-bishops was Petar II Petrovic-Njegos, who ruled from 1830 to 1851 and was at once a reforming statesman and the greatest poet of his language. He strengthened central authority, founded schools and a printing press, and in 1847 published The Mountain Wreath (Gorski vijenac), a dramatic epic set in earlier Montenegro that became a national masterpiece. Revered as the country's most illustrious son, Njegos embodied the fusion of clergy, sovereignty and poetry that defined the theocratic age, which ended soon after his death.

Turning points

1. c. 1516Religion

   Rise of the theocratic Prince-Bishopric

   Authority over the free Montenegrin highlands passed to the Orthodox bishops of Cetinje, who combined spiritual and temporal power as vladikas in a theocratic state that renounced Ottoman overlordship.

   [5] [1]

2. 1696Politics & Power

   Petrovic-Njegos dynasty established

   Metropolitan Danilo Petrovic-Njegos secured the right to name his successor, founding the hereditary Petrovic-Njegos line of prince-bishops that ruled Montenegro until 1918, the title passing from uncle to nephew.

   [6] [5]

3. 1830–1851Culture & Ideas

   Rule of Petar II Petrovic-Njegos

   The poet-prince Petar II strengthened the state, founded schools and reformed taxation, and wrote The Mountain Wreath, becoming Montenegro's most celebrated cultural figure.

   [7] [8]

4. 1847Culture & Ideas

   Publication of The Mountain Wreath

   Njegos published Gorski vijenac (The Mountain Wreath), a dramatic epic in verse set in eighteenth-century Montenegro that became a defining work of the national literature.

   [8] [7]

Figures of the era

In 1852 Danilo Petrovic-Njegos renounced the ecclesiastical office, married and transformed Montenegro from a theocracy into a secular principality, taking the title of prince. His 1855 legal code, often called Danilo's Code, gave the new state its first modern legal framework and ended centuries of rule by bishop-princes. Danilo's reign was cut short by his assassination in 1860, and he was succeeded by his nephew Nikola, who would dominate Montenegrin politics for more than half a century.

Montenegro's long struggle with the Ottoman Empire culminated in the Balkan crisis of the 1870s. Fighting alongside Russia and Serbia in the Russo-Turkish War, the principality won territory on the battlefield, and its sovereignty was formally enshrined at the Congress of Berlin. Article XXVI of the Treaty of Berlin of 13 July 1878 recognised Montenegro's independence, ending Ottoman suzerainty, while Article XXIX enlarged the country and granted it the Adriatic port of Antivari (Bar), though it imposed restrictions barring Montenegro from maintaining a navy or a war flag.

Under Prince Nikola I, Montenegro modernised its institutions and expanded, adopting its first constitution in 1905. On 28 August 1910, marking the fiftieth year of his reign, Nikola proclaimed Montenegro a kingdom and assumed the title of king, making it the last of the Balkan monarchies. In the First Balkan War of 1912-1913 Montenegro joined its neighbours in driving the Ottomans from most of their remaining European lands, capturing the city of Scutari, though the Great Powers compelled it to relinquish that prize.

Turning points

1. 1852Politics & Power

   Montenegro becomes a secular principality

   Danilo renounced the office of prince-bishop, married and proclaimed himself prince, ending the theocracy; his 1855 code gave the principality its first modern legal framework.

   [1] [12]

2. 13 Jul 1878Independence

   Independence recognised at the Congress of Berlin

   The Treaty of Berlin recognised Montenegro's independence under Article XXVI, ending Ottoman suzerainty, and under Article XXIX enlarged the state and granted it the port of Antivari (Bar).

   ↗See the data

   [9] [10] [1]

3. 1905Politics & Power

   First Montenegrin constitution

   Prince Nikola I granted Montenegro its first constitution, establishing an assembly and modern institutions as the principality consolidated its recognised statehood.

   [11] [1]

4. 28 Aug 1910Politics & Power

   Montenegro proclaimed a kingdom

   On the fiftieth anniversary of his reign, Prince Nikola I proclaimed Montenegro a kingdom and assumed the title of king, the last monarchy created in the Balkans.

   [11] [1]

5. 1912–1913War & Rupture

   The Balkan Wars

   Montenegro joined Serbia, Bulgaria and Greece in the First Balkan War against the Ottoman Empire and besieged Scutari, but was forced by the Great Powers to give up the captured city.

   ↗See the data

   [1] [11]

Figures of the era

Montenegro entered the First World War as an ally of Serbia. In January 1916, after the Montenegrin army won the celebrated Battle of Mojkovac to cover the retreat of the Serbs, the kingdom was overrun and occupied by Austria-Hungary; King Nikola I and his government fled into exile by way of Italy to France. The country was liberated in 1918, but its fate was decided not by its exiled monarch but by an assembly convened in Podgorica.

The Podgorica Assembly, meeting in late November 1918, deposed King Nikola I and the Petrovic-Njegos dynasty and proclaimed the unconditional union of Montenegro with Serbia within the new Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. The decision split Montenegrin society between the 'Whites' (Bjelasi), who favoured unification with Serbia, and the 'Greens' (Zelenasi), who wanted Montenegro to enter the union as an equal partner or to keep its independence. Pro-independence forces launched the Christmas Uprising in January 1919, but it was suppressed, and the manner of the union remained bitterly contested for the rest of the century.

Within royal Yugoslavia Montenegro lost its separate statehood. During the Second World War it was occupied and became a centre of partisan resistance, and in socialist Yugoslavia it was reconstituted in 1945 as the Socialist Republic of Montenegro, one of the six federal republics, with Titograd (modern Podgorica) as its capital. For four decades Montenegro existed as a Yugoslav republic, regaining a recognised political identity within the federation even as full sovereignty remained a memory of the kingdom abolished in 1918.

Turning points

1. Jan 1916War & Rupture

   Battle of Mojkovac and Austro-Hungarian occupation

   The Montenegrin army won the Battle of Mojkovac (7-8 January 1916) to cover the Serbian retreat, but the kingdom was overrun and occupied by Austria-Hungary, and King Nikola I fled into exile.

   ↗See the data

   [13] [14]

2. Nov 1918Politics & Power

   The Podgorica Assembly

   An assembly in Podgorica deposed King Nikola I and the Petrovic-Njegos dynasty and proclaimed the unconditional union of Montenegro with Serbia in the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes.

   [13] [1]

3. Jan 1919War & Rupture

   The Christmas Uprising and the Greens-Whites split

   Pro-independence 'Greens' rose against the union proclaimed at Podgorica but were defeated by the unionist 'Whites', a schism over Montenegro's statehood that endured for generations.

   ↗See the data

   [13] [14]

4. 1945Politics & Power

   Socialist Republic of Montenegro

   After wartime occupation and partisan resistance, Montenegro became one of the six federal republics of socialist Yugoslavia, with its capital at Titograd, today's Podgorica.

   [1]

Figures of the era

When Yugoslavia disintegrated in the early 1990s, Montenegro alone chose to remain with Serbia. In 1992 the two republics formed the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, a rump state that endured the wars, sanctions and isolation of the decade. By the turn of the century Montenegro's leadership had distanced itself from Belgrade, even adopting the German mark and then, from 2002, the euro as its sole legal tender, a unilateral euroisation undertaken without the agreement of the European Central Bank.

Under European mediation the federation was reorganised in 2003 into a loose State Union of Serbia and Montenegro. Its Constitutional Charter included a crucial provision: after three years either republic could hold a referendum on independence. As that period elapsed, the European Union set the terms of any vote, requiring that independence be approved by at least 55 percent of valid votes, a qualified majority that critics argued had been fixed for political reasons.

The referendum was held on 21 May 2006. With turnout above 86 percent, 55.5 percent of voters chose independence, narrowly clearing the 55 percent threshold. International observers from the OSCE Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights concluded that the vote 'was conducted in line with OSCE and other international standards related to democratic electoral processes' and gave citizens 'a genuine opportunity to determine the future course of Montenegro as an independent state.' On 3 June 2006 the parliament in Podgorica formally declared independence, restoring the sovereign Montenegrin state that had been lost in 1918.

Turning points

1. 1992Politics & Power

   Federal Republic of Yugoslavia

   As the other republics broke away, Montenegro joined Serbia in forming the rump Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, remaining bound to Belgrade through the wars and sanctions of the 1990s.

   [1] [17]

2. 2002Economy & Trade

   Unilateral adoption of the euro

   Montenegro made the euro its sole legal tender from March 2002, a unilateral euroisation undertaken without European Central Bank agreement that distanced its economy from Serbia's.

   ↗See the data

   [19]

3. 2003Politics & Power

   State Union of Serbia and Montenegro

   European mediation transformed the federation into the loose State Union of Serbia and Montenegro, whose Constitutional Charter allowed either republic to hold an independence referendum after three years.

   [15] [1]

4. 21 May 2006Independence

   Independence referendum

   On a turnout above 86 percent, 55.5 percent of voters chose independence, narrowly passing the EU-set 55 percent threshold; the OSCE/ODIHR found the vote met international standards.

   ↗See the data

   [15] [16] [2]

5. 3 Jun 2006Independence

   Restoration of independence

   The parliament in Podgorica formally declared Montenegro an independent sovereign state, recognised by Serbia, restoring the statehood lost at the Podgorica Assembly of 1918.

   ↗See the data

   [15] [2]

Figures of the era

Independent Montenegro set its course toward Euro-Atlantic integration. It applied for European Union membership in 2008 and was granted candidate status in December 2010, opening accession negotiations that have made it one of the front-runners among the Western Balkan states. The country retained the euro as its currency, continuing the unilateral euroisation it had begun in 2002, a status it shares in Europe only with Kosovo.

On 5 June 2017 Montenegro became the twenty-ninth member of NATO, depositing its instrument of accession in Washington after the parliaments of all the existing allies had ratified its membership. NATO's Secretary General declared that the country joined 'with a seat at the table as an equal, with an equal voice in shaping our Alliance, and its independence guaranteed,' a step taken despite strong opposition from Russia and from parts of the domestic public.

Two border questions accompanied the new state's diplomacy. With Croatia, the status of the Prevlaka peninsula at the entrance to the Bay of Kotor and the surrounding maritime boundary remained unresolved, the two sides agreeing interim arrangements while leaving the demarcation to future negotiation or international adjudication. With Kosovo, a demarcation agreement for the 79-kilometre border was signed in 2015 but proved deeply controversial in Pristina, where opposition parties charged that it ceded land; after years of protest it was finally ratified by Kosovo's parliament in March 2018, the last major piece of Montenegro's frontier settlement.

Turning points

1. 2008Politics & Power

   Application for EU membership

   Montenegro applied to join the European Union, beginning the accession process that would make it one of the leading candidates among the Western Balkan countries.

   [18]

2. 17 Dec 2010Politics & Power

   EU candidate status

   The European Union granted Montenegro candidate status, a milestone toward the accession negotiations the country has pursued while retaining the euro as its currency.

   [18]

3. 2015–2018Politics & Power

   Kosovo border demarcation

   Montenegro and Kosovo signed a demarcation of their 79-kilometre border in 2015; fiercely contested in Kosovo, it was finally ratified by Pristina's parliament in March 2018.

   [22]

4. 5 Jun 2017Politics & Power

   Accession to NATO

   Montenegro became NATO's twenty-ninth member, depositing its instrument of accession in Washington, despite strong Russian opposition and a divided domestic public.

   [20] [21]

Figures of the era