The 1940s

Africa

1. COGWar & Rupture

   Congo

   Brazzaville, capital of Free France

   After French Equatorial Africa rallied to General de Gaulle in 1940, Brazzaville became the effective capital of Free France, a base for organising resistance against Vichy and the Axis powers.

   French Equatorial Africa, forced labour, and the Congo-Ocean Railway

   Sources: French Equatorial Africa (Wikipedia) · The Brazzaville Conference, 1944 (BlackPast.org) · Republic of the Congo (Encyclopædia Britannica)

2. LBYWar & Rupture

   Libya · 1940–1943

   North African desert campaigns

   The Second World War's desert war sweeps across Libya; by 1943 Allied forces expel the Axis, ending Italian rule and beginning Anglo-French administration.

   Italian Colonisation and the Resistance

   Sources: Libya (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

3. SOLWar & Rupture

   Somaliland · 1940–1941

   Italian occupation and British reconquest

   Italy overran the protectorate in 1940; British forces retook it in 1941 and went on to capture Italian Somaliland, placing the region under British administration for a period.

   The British Somaliland Protectorate

   Sources: British Somaliland (Wikipedia) · British Somaliland: The Protectorate on the Horn of Africa (World History Encyclopedia)

Asia

1. OMNPolitics & Power

   Oman · late 1930s or early 1940s

   Madha's elders choose Muscat; Nahwa stays with Sharjah

   According to local oral history, the leaders of the neighbouring ruling families asked the elders of the mountain village of Madha which ruler it wished to follow. Madha chose Oman, reportedly for its perceived wealth, stronger government and the protection of its water, while the nearby village of Nahwa stayed with the Qawasim of Sharjah. The choice left Madha an Omani exclave inside the Trucial Coast with a Sharjah village inside it. The date and the wording of the question are recorded only in oral accounts.

   Decline, British Influence and Isolation

   Sources: Madha village's pledge of allegiance changed the map forever (The National) · A hidden piece of the Emirates (The National)

2. PAKPolitics & Power

   Pakistan · 23 Mar 1940

   The Lahore Resolution

   Meeting in Lahore, the Muslim League under Jinnah adopts the resolution demanding independent states for Muslims, the foundational charter of the Pakistan Movement.

   The British Raj and the Pakistan Movement

   Sources: Mohammed Ali Jinnah (Encyclopædia Britannica) · Pakistan: A Country Study (Library of Congress, Federal Research Division)

3. AREPolitics & Power

   United Arab Emirates · late 1930s or early 1940s

   Madha's elders choose Muscat; Nahwa stays with Sharjah

   According to local oral history, the leaders of the neighbouring ruling families asked the elders of the mountain village of Madha which ruler it wished to follow. Madha chose Oman, reportedly for its perceived wealth, stronger government and the protection of its water, while the nearby village of Nahwa stayed with the Qawasim of Sharjah. The choice left Madha an Omani exclave inside the Trucial Coast with a Sharjah village inside it. The date and the wording of the question are recorded only in oral accounts.

   The Fall of Pearls, the Rise of Oil, and Federation

   Sources: Madha village's pledge of allegiance changed the map forever (The National) · A hidden piece of the Emirates (The National)

Europe

1. BELWar & Rupture

   Belgium · 10 May 1940

   Second German invasion

   Germany again invaded neutral Belgium on 10 May 1940, this time thrusting through the Ardennes, and rapidly overwhelmed the defending Belgian, French and British forces.

   The Two World Wars and the Gains of Versailles

   Sources: German Invasion of Western Europe, May 1940 (United States Holocaust Memorial Museum) · Belgium: History (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

2. BELWar & Rupture

   Belgium · 28 May 1940

   Surrender of King Leopold III

   After eighteen days of fighting Leopold III surrendered the Belgian army without consulting his government, beginning four years of German occupation and a political crisis over the king's conduct.

   The Two World Wars and the Gains of Versailles

   Sources: German Invasion of Western Europe, May 1940 (United States Holocaust Memorial Museum) · Belgium: History (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

3. BGRPolitics & Power

   Bulgaria · 7 Sep 1940

   Treaty of Craiova returns Southern Dobruja

   By the Treaty of Craiova, Romania ceded Southern Dobruja back to Bulgaria, restoring the 1912 frontier, the one Axis-era border change that was not reversed after the Second World War.

   The Balkan Wars, the World Wars and the Saving of the Jews

   Sources: Treaty of Craiova (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Treaty of Craiova and the return of South Dobruja (Bulgarian National Radio (BNR))

4. DNKWar & Rupture

   Denmark · 9 Apr 1940

   German occupation of Denmark

   Germany invaded on 9 April 1940 and Denmark surrendered within hours; a policy of negotiation gave way in August 1943 to direct German control and an active resistance movement.

   Occupation, the Welfare State and the Modern Realm

   Sources: German occupation (1940-1945) (National Museum of Denmark) · A Guide to the History of Recognition, Diplomatic, and Consular Relations: Denmark (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian)

5. ESTWar & Rupture

   Estonia · Jun–Aug 1940

   Soviet occupation and annexation

   The Red Army occupied Estonia on 16-17 June 1940 and, after a staged election, the country was annexed into the Soviet Union in August, ending the independent republic.

   Occupation, Annexation and the Long Night

   Sources: Estonia: Independence lost (Soviet occupation, World War II) (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Estonia in the grip of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact (Estonian World)

6. ESTPolitics & Power

   Estonia · from 1940

   Western non-recognition

   Following the Stimson Doctrine, the United States and many other states refused to recognise the Soviet annexation de jure, holding that Estonia remained a sovereign state under occupation.

   Occupation, Annexation and the Long Night

   Sources: What Made the Restoration of Estonian Independence Possible? (non-recognition and state continuity) (International Centre for Defence and Security (ICDS)) · Estonia: Independence lost (Soviet occupation, World War II) (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

7. FINWar & Rupture

   Finland · Mar 1940

   Moscow Peace Treaty cedes Karelia

   The Winter War ended in March 1940 with Finland keeping its independence but ceding much of Karelia, including Viipuri; the inhabitants of the lost lands were evacuated into the rest of Finland.

   The Winter War, the Continuation War and the Loss of Karelia

   Sources: Russo-Finnish War (Winter War) (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Finland during World War II (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

8. HUNPolitics & Power

   Hungary · 30 Aug 1940

   Second Vienna Award

   Germany and Italy awarded Hungary northern Transylvania from Romania, deepening Hungary's dependence on the Axis powers in its quest to reverse Trianon.

   Trianon and the Shrinking of Hungary

   Sources: Treaty of Trianon (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

9. ISLWar & Rupture

   Iceland · May 1940

   British occupation of Iceland

   After Germany occupied Denmark, British forces occupied strategically vital Iceland in May 1940 to forestall a German move, severing Iceland's last constitutional ties to its monarch.

   Occupation, the Republic and NATO

   Sources: History of Iceland from 1944 (nordics.info (Aarhus University)) · Iceland: History (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

10. ITAWar & Rupture

    Italy · 10 June 1940

    Italy enters the Second World War

    Italy declared war on Britain and France, entering the Second World War as Germany's Axis ally, a decision that brought defeat, occupation and devastation.

    Liberal Italy, Fascism, War and the Republic

    Sources: Italy (Fascism, racial laws and the Second World War) (United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Holocaust Encyclopedia) · Italy (country overview and history) (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

11. LVAWar & Rupture

    Latvia · Jun–Aug 1940

    Soviet occupation and annexation

    The Red Army occupied Latvia in June 1940; after a staged election a puppet parliament requested incorporation, and the Soviet Union annexed the country in August 1940.

    Occupation, War and the Holocaust

    Sources: About the Museum (Museum of the Occupation of Latvia) · History of Latvia (Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Latvia) · U.S. non-recognition of Latvia’s occupation (Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Latvia)

12. LTUWar & Rupture

    Lithuania

    Soviet occupation and annexation

    The Soviet Union occupied Lithuania in June 1940 and annexed it in August as the Lithuanian SSR, an incorporation never recognised as lawful by the United States and most Western states.

    War, Soviet Occupation and the Partisan Struggle

    Sources: German-Soviet Pact (United States Holocaust Memorial Museum) · History of Lithuania (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

13. LUXWar & Rupture

    Luxembourg · 10 May 1940

    Second German invasion and annexation

    The Wehrmacht overran Luxembourg on 10 May 1940; the government and Grand Duchess fled into exile, and the territory was placed under a German civil administration aimed at its full integration into the Reich.

    Two World Wars and the End of Neutrality

    Sources: Occupation and Annexation during the Second World War: the Case of Luxembourg (Occupation Studies, Maastricht University (FASoS)) · Luxembourgers general strike against Nazi occupation, 1942 (Global Nonviolent Action Database, Swarthmore College)

14. MLTWar & Rupture

    Malta · 1940–1942

    The siege of Malta

    From 1940 Malta, lying between Sicily and Axis North Africa, was subjected to relentless Italian and German bombing and a near-starvation blockade while its forces struck at Axis supply convoys.

    The George Cross Island and the European Republic

    Sources: George Cross awarded to the island of Malta (Royal Air Force Benevolent Fund)

15. MDAPolitics & Power

    Moldova · 2 Aug 1940

    Creation of the Moldavian SSR

    The Soviet Union proclaimed the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic, joining most of annexed Bessarabia to the Moldavian ASSR east of the Dniester, with the new republic's borders deliberately reshaped.

    Soviet Moldavia: Annexation, Famine and Deportation

    Sources: Bessarabia's Annexation: Impact and Legacy of the USSR Ultimatum (Radio Moldova (public broadcaster)) · Moldova: History (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

16. MDAWar & Rupture

    Moldova · 28 Jun 1940

    Soviet annexation of Bessarabia

    Acting on the secret protocol of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, the Red Army occupied Bessarabia after an ultimatum to Romania, ending more than two decades of Romanian rule.

    Soviet Moldavia: Annexation, Famine and Deportation

    Sources: Bessarabia's Annexation: Impact and Legacy of the USSR Ultimatum (Radio Moldova (public broadcaster)) · Moldova: History (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

17. NLDWar & Rupture

    Netherlands · 10 May 1940

    German invasion and occupation

    Nazi Germany invades the neutral Netherlands; after the bombing of Rotterdam the country surrenders, beginning five years of occupation.

    The World Wars, Decolonisation and the Modern Netherlands

    Sources: The Netherlands (Holocaust Encyclopedia) (United States Holocaust Memorial Museum)

18. NORWar & Rupture

    Norway · 9 Apr 1940

    German invasion and the Quisling regime

    Germany invaded on 9 April 1940; the king and government went into exile while Vidkun Quisling proclaimed a government, beginning five years of occupation and collaboration.

    Independence, Polar Sovereignty and the Second World War

    Sources: Vidkun Quisling's illegal government in Oslo 1940 (Government of Norway (regjeringen.no)) · Norway: World War II (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

19. POLWar & Rupture

    Poland · 1940–1945

    Auschwitz-Birkenau and the Holocaust on Polish soil

    Germany operated its largest concentration and extermination camp at Auschwitz-Birkenau, where some 1.1 million people, overwhelmingly Jews, were murdered as part of the genocide carried out across occupied Poland.

    The Second Republic, the Second World War and the Nazi-Soviet Catastrophe

    Sources: Auschwitz Birkenau German Nazi Concentration and Extermination Camp (1940-1945) (UNESCO World Heritage Centre) · Polish Victims (United States Holocaust Memorial Museum)

20. ROUWar & Rupture

    Romania · 20 Nov 1940

    Romania joins the Axis

    After the loss of King Carol II's throne, General Ion Antonescu took power and brought Romania into the Axis, later joining the war against the Soviet Union and presiding over the murder of hundreds of thousands of Jews and Roma.

    Dismemberment, the Second World War and communist rule

    Sources: Romania (United States Holocaust Memorial Museum) · Ion Antonescu (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

21. ROUPolitics & Power

    Romania · 30 Aug 1940

    Second Vienna Award and Southern Dobruja

    Under German and Italian arbitration Romania ceded northern Transylvania to Hungary; in September southern Dobruja was ceded to Bulgaria, costing Romania about 30% of its territory and people.

    Dismemberment, the Second World War and communist rule

    Sources: Romania (United States Holocaust Memorial Museum)

22. ROUWar & Rupture

    Romania · 28 Jun 1940

    Soviet seizure of Bessarabia and northern Bukovina

    The Soviet Union demanded and took Bessarabia and northern Bukovina from Romania, the first of the 1940 territorial losses; Bessarabia, largely Romanian-speaking, became the core of the later Republic of Moldova.

    Dismemberment, the Second World War and communist rule

    Sources: Romania (United States Holocaust Memorial Museum) · Moldova and Romania: A Long and Complicated Relationship (Origins (Ohio State University / Miami University))

23. CHEWar & Rupture

    Switzerland

    Armed neutrality in the Second World War

    Encircled by the Axis, Switzerland mobilised under General Henri Guisan, who rallied the army on the Rütli and adopted the Alpine Réduit defence; the country stayed unoccupied but later faced reckoning over refugees and looted assets.

    Neutral Switzerland: World Wars, Sovereignty and the Modern Confederation

    Sources: Henri Guisan (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Neutrality (Federal Department of Foreign Affairs (aboutswitzerland.eda.admin.ch))

North America

1. TTOCulture & Ideas

   Trinidad and Tobago · c. 1940

   Birth of the steelpan

   Musicians in Port of Spain fashioned the steelpan from oil drums after colonial bans on African drumming — the only acoustic instrument invented in the 20th century and now the national instrument.

   A modern energy nation

   Sources: Steelband (National Library and Information System Authority (NALIS), Trinidad and Tobago)

Oceania

1. FJIPolitics & Power

   Fiji

   Native Land Trust Board established

   Ratu Sir Lala Sukuna helps create the board that entrenches indigenous control of most Fijian land, shaping the colony's economy and politics.

   Late Colony & the Road to Independence

   Sources: The historical significance of Ratu Sir Lala Sukuna (University of the South Pacific) · Fiji — History (Melanesian, Colonialism, Independence) (Encyclopædia Britannica)

2. VUTReligion

   Vanuatu · c. late 1930s–1940s

   Rise of the John Frum movement

   On Tanna the John Frum cargo cult emerged, awaiting a messianic 'John from America' who would bring cargo and restore custom against missionary and colonial control.

   The Anglo-French Condominium

   Sources: Vanuatu — History (Melanesian, Colonization, Independence) (Encyclopædia Britannica)

Africa

1. ERIWar & Rupture

   Eritrea · February-April 1941

   British defeat Italy at Keren

   Allied forces overcome Italian troops at the Battle of Keren; Asmara and Massawa surrender, ending Italian rule and beginning British military administration.

   Italy's First-Born Colony

   Sources: Battle of Keren (Wikipedia) · British Military Administration (Eritrea) (Wikipedia)

2. ERIPolitics & Power

   Eritrea

   British military administration begins

   Following the Allied victory at Keren, Britain administers Eritrea for the next decade while its post-war status is debated.

   Federation, Annexation and the Thirty-Year War

   Sources: British Military Administration (Eritrea) (Wikipedia)

Asia

1. BRNWar & Rupture

   Brunei · 16 December 1941

   Japanese occupation begins

   Japanese forces land at Kuala Belait and quickly occupy Brunei, seizing the strategically vital Seria oil fields; the occupation lasts until 1945.

   Oil, the Japanese Occupation, and the Road to Self-Government

   Sources: History of Brunei (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

2. JPNWar & Rupture

   Japan · 1941 CE

   Attack on Pearl Harbor

   Japan attacks the U.S. fleet at Pearl Harbor, bringing the United States into World War II and opening the Pacific War.

   Meiji and Empire: Revolution from Above

   Sources: Pacific War (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

Europe

1. BLRWar & Rupture

   Belarus · 1941-1944

   Nazi occupation and mass death

   The German occupation killed a quarter to a third of the population; the people of Belarus fell from about 9.2 million before the war to roughly 6.3 million by late 1944, with cities like Minsk left in ruins.

   Reunification, the Nazi Catastrophe and Soviet Belarus

   Sources: Aftermath of the War (Archives of Belarus (archives.gov.by)) · History of Belarus (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

2. BIHWar & Rupture

   Bosnia and Herzegovina · Apr 1941

   Axis invasion and the NDH

   The Axis dismembered Yugoslavia and incorporated Bosnia into the Ustaša-led Independent State of Croatia, whose terror against Serbs, Jews and Roma helped ignite a brutal multi-sided civil war.

   The Second World War and Socialist Bosnia

   Sources: Parliamentary Assembly of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Parliamentary Assembly of Bosnia and Herzegovina) · Bosnia and Herzegovina: History (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

3. BGRWar & Rupture

   Bulgaria · Mar 1941

   Bulgaria joins the Axis

   Bulgaria adhered to the Tripartite Pact in March 1941 and joined the German-led attack on Yugoslavia and Greece, occupying parts of Macedonia and Thrace it had long claimed.

   The Balkan Wars, the World Wars and the Saving of the Jews

   Sources: Bulgaria: World War II (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Bulgaria (United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Holocaust Encyclopedia)

4. HRVWar & Rupture

   Croatia

   The Independent State of Croatia (NDH)

   Following the Axis invasion, Germany and Italy set up the Independent State of Croatia, a puppet state run by the fascist Ustase under Ante Pavelic, embracing Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina.

   Yugoslavia, the Ustase Catastrophe and Socialist Croatia

   Sources: Independent State of Croatia (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Ustasa (Croatian fascist movement) (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

5. HRVWar & Rupture

   Croatia · 1941–1945

   The Jasenovac camp

   The Ustase regime operated its largest camp complex at Jasenovac, where it murdered an estimated 77,000 to 99,000 people, among them tens of thousands of Serbs, Jews and Roma, between 1941 and 1945.

   Yugoslavia, the Ustase Catastrophe and Socialist Croatia

   Sources: Jasenovac (United States Holocaust Memorial Museum) · Ustasa (Croatian fascist movement) (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

6. ESTCatastrophe

   Estonia · 14 Jun 1941

   The June deportation

   Soviet authorities deported more than 10,000 people from Estonia to Siberia in a single operation, most of them women, children and the elderly, days before the German invasion.

   Occupation, Annexation and the Long Night

   Sources: Commemoration in Tallinn of victims of the deportations of June 1941 (Government of the Republic of Estonia (valitsus.ee)) · Estonia: Independence lost (Soviet occupation, World War II) (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

7. FINWar & Rupture

   Finland · 1941–1944

   The Continuation War

   Allied with Germany after its 1941 invasion of the USSR, Finland fought the Continuation War to recover Karelia, but a Soviet offensive in 1944 forced it to seek an armistice.

   The Winter War, the Continuation War and the Loss of Karelia

   Sources: Finland during World War II (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Russo-Finnish War (Winter War) (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

8. DEUCatastrophe

   Germany · 1941–1945

   The Holocaust

   Nazi Germany carried out the systematic, state-organised murder of some six million European Jews, alongside the killing of Roma, disabled people, Soviet prisoners and other victims.

   Weimar, the Third Reich and the Second World War

   Sources: The Holocaust and World War II: Key Dates (United States Holocaust Memorial Museum)

9. GRCWar & Rupture

   Greece · 1941–1944

   Axis occupation of Greece

   After resisting Italy in 1940, Greece was occupied by Germany, Italy and Bulgaria from 1941 to 1944, enduring a devastating famine and the deaths of hundreds of thousands of civilians.

   The Modern Greek State

   Sources: Axis occupation of Greece (Wikipedia) · Greece (country overview and history) (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

10. HUNWar & Rupture

    Hungary

    Hungary enters the war as an Axis ally

    Seeking to keep and extend the lands restored by the Vienna Awards, Hungary joined Germany's war and took part in the invasion of the Soviet Union.

    The Second World War and the Holocaust in Hungary

    Sources: The Holocaust in Hungary (United States Holocaust Memorial Museum)

11. ISLWar & Rupture

    Iceland

    United States assumes Iceland's defence

    By agreement with the Icelandic government, the United States took over the island's defence in 1941, building a substantial military presence in the North Atlantic.

    Occupation, the Republic and NATO

    Sources: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1949, Vol. IV (Iceland and the North Atlantic Treaty) (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian) · Iceland: History (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

12. LVACatastrophe

    Latvia · 13–14 Jun 1941

    The June 1941 deportations

    The Soviet regime deported some fifteen thousand people from Latvia to Siberia in a single operation, targeting the country's political, economic and intellectual elite; many never returned.

    Occupation, War and the Holocaust

    Sources: About the Museum (Museum of the Occupation of Latvia) · History of Latvia (Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Latvia)

13. LVAWar & Rupture

    Latvia · 30 Nov & 8 Dec 1941

    The Rumbula massacre

    Under the Nazi occupation, SS units led by Friedrich Jeckeln shot about twenty-five thousand Jews, chiefly from the Riga ghetto, in the Rumbula forest, among the largest single massacres of the Holocaust.

    Occupation, War and the Holocaust

    Sources: Riga (United States Holocaust Memorial Museum)

14. LTUCatastrophe

    Lithuania · 1941–1952

    Mass deportations to Siberia

    The Soviet regime deported well over one hundred thousand Lithuanians to camps and forced settlements, with the largest operations in 1948 and 1949, to crush resistance and impose collectivisation.

    War, Soviet Occupation and the Partisan Struggle

    Sources: Genocide and Resistance Research Centre of Lithuania (Genocide and Resistance Research Centre of Lithuania (genocid.lt)) · History of Lithuania (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

15. RUSWar & Rupture

    Russia · 1941-1945

    The Great Patriotic War

    Nazi Germany's invasion of 22 June 1941 begins the war's deadliest theater; after the siege of Leningrad and the decisive victory at Stalingrad, Soviet forces reach Berlin in 1945 at a cost of roughly 27 million Soviet dead.

    The Soviet Union

    Sources: Battle of Stalingrad (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · The Eastern Front: The German War against the Soviet Union (United States Holocaust Memorial Museum) · World War II casualties of the Soviet Union (Wikipedia)

16. SRBWar & Rupture

    Serbia · Apr 1941

    Axis invasion and occupation

    Germany and its allies invaded and dismembered Yugoslavia in April 1941, placing Serbia under occupation and unleashing a multi-sided war of resistance and civil conflict.

    The Birth of Yugoslavia and the World Wars

    Sources: Josip Broz Tito (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Serbia: History (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

17. SVNWar & Rupture

    Slovenia · Apr 1941

    Axis partition of Slovenia

    Following the invasion of Yugoslavia, the Axis powers carved up the Slovene lands among Germany, Italy and Hungary, while a Liberation Front founded in Ljubljana launched armed resistance.

    Into Yugoslavia: War, Partition and Contested Borders

    Sources: Slovenia since 1918 (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · History of Slovenia (Government of Slovenia (gov.si))

18. UKRWar & Rupture

    Ukraine · 29–30 Sep 1941

    Babyn Yar massacre

    German SS and police units shot 33,771 Jews at the Babyn Yar ravine outside Kyiv over two days; in all some 100,000 people were murdered there during the occupation.

    Soviet Ukraine, the Holodomor and the Second World War

    Sources: Mass Shootings at Babyn Yar (Babi Yar) (United States Holocaust Memorial Museum) · Babi Yar massacre site (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

North America

1. GRLWar & Rupture

   Greenland · 9 Apr 1941

   Greenland under U.S. protection

   With Denmark occupied, the Danish minister Henrik Kauffmann signed the Agreement Relating to the Defense of Greenland with the United States, placing the island under American protection and opening it to U.S. bases.

   War, the Cold War and the End of Colony

   Sources: A Guide to the History of Recognition, Diplomatic, and Consular Relations: Denmark (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian) · The history of US presence in Greenland (Danish Institute for International Studies (DIIS))

2. USAWar & Rupture

   United States · 7 December 1941

   Attack on Pearl Harbor

   Japan's surprise attack on the U.S. naval base in Hawaii brought the United States into the Second World War.

   Reconstruction, industrial rise, and the World Wars

   Sources: Joint Address to Congress Leading to a Declaration of War Against Japan (1941) (U.S. National Archives)

Africa

1. DJIWar & Rupture

   Djibouti

   Djibouti rallies to Free France

   After a period under Vichy control and blockade during the Second World War, the colony joins the Free French forces.

   The Railway and the Colony of French Somaliland

   Sources: Djibouti (country and history) (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · History of Djibouti (Wikipedia)

2. MDGWar & Rupture

   Madagascar

   The Battle of Madagascar

   British forces invade the Vichy-administered island to deny its harbours to the Japanese navy; the colonial administration's prestige does not recover.

   French Conquest & Colony

   Sources: Madagascar country profile (BBC News)

Asia

1. IDNWar & Rupture

   Indonesia

   Japanese occupation of the Indies

   Japan conquers the Dutch East Indies, ending Dutch rule; its occupation brings forced labour and hardship but also mobilises and arms Indonesian nationalists.

   Japanese Occupation, Independence and the Revolution

   Sources: Indonesia (toward independence; Japanese occupation; after Suharto) (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies (Wikipedia)

2. MYSWar & Rupture

   Malaysia · 15 Feb 1942

   Japanese occupation and the fall of Singapore

   Japanese forces overrun Malaya and capture Singapore on 15 February 1942, beginning a three-and-a-half-year occupation that shatters British prestige and deepens communal divisions.

   Occupation, the Emergency and Merdeka

   Sources: Malaysia: Political transformation (occupation, federation, NEP) (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · 1942 and the Fall of Singapore (National Heritage Board, Singapore)

3. PHLWar & Rupture

   Philippines · 1942-1945

   Japanese occupation

   Japan occupies the Philippines during the Second World War; guerrilla resistance and the campaign to retake the islands leave over a million Filipinos dead and Manila in ruins.

   Japanese Occupation, Independence and the Marcos Dictatorship

   Sources: July 4, 1946: The Philippines Gained Independence from the United States (The National WWII Museum)

4. THAWar & Rupture

   Thailand

   Alliance with Japan in World War II

   Phibun's government allies Thailand with Japan and declares war on Britain and the United States, while the Free Thai movement under Pridi resists covertly.

   Constitutional Revolution, the Name Thailand, and the World Wars

   Sources: Thailand (Encyclopædia Britannica) · Pridi Phanomyong (Encyclopædia Britannica)

Europe

1. LUXWar & Rupture

   Luxembourg · 31 Aug 1942

   Conscription and the general strike

   When the occupier imposed German citizenship and Wehrmacht conscription in August 1942, a general strike spread from 31 August, the first in Nazi-occupied Europe; the Germans declared martial law and executed twenty-one strikers.

   Two World Wars and the End of Neutrality

   Sources: Luxembourgers general strike against Nazi occupation, 1942 (Global Nonviolent Action Database, Swarthmore College) · Occupation and Annexation during the Second World War: the Case of Luxembourg (Occupation Studies, Maastricht University (FASoS))

2. MLTWar & Rupture

   Malta · 15 Apr 1942

   Malta awarded the George Cross

   King George VI awarded the George Cross to the whole island of Malta to honour its heroism and endurance under siege, the only time the decoration has been given to an entire population.

   The George Cross Island and the European Republic

   Sources: George Cross awarded to the island of Malta (Royal Air Force Benevolent Fund)

3. NLDWar & Rupture

   Netherlands · 1942–1945

   The Holocaust in the Netherlands

   From July 1942 the occupiers and Dutch collaborators deport some 107,000 Jews, mostly to Auschwitz and Sobibor; about 104,000 Dutch Jews are murdered, the highest proportion in Western Europe.

   The World Wars, Decolonisation and the Modern Netherlands

   Sources: The Netherlands (Holocaust Encyclopedia) (United States Holocaust Memorial Museum) · The Netherlands: the greatest number of Jewish victims in Western Europe (Anne Frank House)

4. SVKWar & Rupture

   Slovakia

   Deportation of Slovak Jews

   Slovakia became the first Axis partner to consent to the deportation of its Jews; between March and October 1942 some 57,000 Slovak Jews were deported to German-occupied Poland, with more than 60,000 of Slovakia's Jews murdered overall.

   Czechoslovakia, the Slovak State and the Uprising

   Sources: The Holocaust in Slovakia (United States Holocaust Memorial Museum) · Jozef Tiso (United States Holocaust Memorial Museum)

Oceania

1. AUSWar & Rupture

   Australia · 19 February 1942

   Bombing of Darwin

   Japanese aircraft bombed Darwin during the Second World War, the largest attack ever mounted on Australia, prompting Australia to turn increasingly toward the United States for security.

   The world wars, immigration, and the twentieth century

   Sources: Australia (country) (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

2. PNGWar & Rupture

   Papua New Guinea · 1942–1945

   Papuan carriers and soldiers

   Papuan carriers moved supplies and the wounded across the mountains, and soldiers of the Papuan Infantry Battalion fought alongside Australian forces throughout the New Guinea campaigns.

   The Second World War: Kokoda and Bougainville

   Sources: Kokoda (Australian War Memorial) · Australians in the Kokoda Track Campaign, 21 July to 16 November 1942 (Anzac Portal, Australian Department of Veterans' Affairs)

3. PNGWar & Rupture

   Papua New Guinea · 21 July – 16 November 1942

   The Kokoda Track campaign

   Australian and Papuan troops halted the Japanese advance over the Owen Stanley Range toward Port Moresby and drove them back; over 600 Australians were killed in arguably Australia's most significant campaign of the war.

   The Second World War: Kokoda and Bougainville

   Sources: Kokoda (Australian War Memorial) · Australians in the Kokoda Track Campaign, 21 July to 16 November 1942 (Anzac Portal, Australian Department of Veterans' Affairs)

4. SLBWar & Rupture

   Solomon Islands · 7 August 1942

   US landings on Guadalcanal

   US Marines land on Guadalcanal and Tulagi in the first major American amphibious offensive of the war, seizing the future Henderson Field.

   Guadalcanal and the Turning of the Pacific War

   Sources: Solomon Islands Campaign: Guadalcanal (collection) (Australian War Memorial) · The Battle of Guadalcanal (The National WWII Museum, New Orleans)

5. VUTWar & Rupture

   Vanuatu

   U.S. wartime bases on Efate and Santo

   American forces built major bases in the islands during the Pacific War, flooding them with goods and personnel and transforming local society.

   The Anglo-French Condominium

   Sources: Vanuatu — History (Melanesian, Colonization, Independence) (Encyclopædia Britannica)

Asia

1. INDCatastrophe

   India

   Bengal famine

   An estimated two to three million people die in Bengal in a man-made famine driven by wartime inflation, export priorities and colonial policy rather than any major shortfall in food production.

   The East India Company and the British Raj

   Sources: Bengal famine of 1943 (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Bengal famine of 1943 (Wikipedia)

2. LBNPolitics & Power

   Lebanon

   The National Pact

   Bechara El Khoury and Riad al-Solh agree the unwritten National Pact distributing the presidency, premiership and parliamentary speakership among Maronites, Sunnis and Shi'a.

   Independence and the Golden Age

   Sources: Lebanon: The National Pact (Lebanon: A Country Study) (U.S. Library of Congress, Federal Research Division) · History of Lebanon (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

Europe

1. BLRWar & Rupture

   Belarus · 22 Mar 1943

   The Khatyn massacre

   German forces and auxiliaries burned the village of Khatyn with its inhabitants, one of hundreds of Belarusian villages annihilated in anti-partisan reprisals and a lasting symbol of the occupation's brutality.

   Reunification, the Nazi Catastrophe and Soviet Belarus

   Sources: Aftermath of the War (Archives of Belarus (archives.gov.by))

2. BIHPolitics & Power

   Bosnia and Herzegovina · 25 Nov 1943

   First session of ZAVNOBiH

   At Mrkonjić Grad the anti-fascist council ZAVNOBiH proclaimed Bosnia and Herzegovina a federal unit of its equal peoples, ensuring it would be restored as a distinct republic within Yugoslavia.

   The Second World War and Socialist Bosnia

   Sources: Parliamentary Assembly of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Parliamentary Assembly of Bosnia and Herzegovina)

3. BGRWar & Rupture

   Bulgaria · Mar–May 1943

   Deportations and the rescue of Bulgaria's Jews

   Bulgaria deported over 11,000 Jews from occupied Thrace and Macedonia to Treblinka, but protests led by Dimitar Peshev and the Orthodox Church forced Tsar Boris III to cancel the deportation of the roughly 48,000 Jews of Bulgaria proper, who survived.

   The Balkan Wars, the World Wars and the Saving of the Jews

   Sources: Bulgaria (United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Holocaust Encyclopedia) · Bulgaria: World War II (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

4. DNKWar & Rupture

   Denmark · Oct 1943

   Rescue of the Danish Jews

   Warned of a German round-up, Danes spirited more than 7,000 Jews across the sound to neutral Sweden, saving the great majority of the country's Jewish population from deportation.

   Occupation, the Welfare State and the Modern Realm

   Sources: German occupation (1940-1945) (National Museum of Denmark)

5. ITAWar & Rupture

   Italy · 8 September 1943

   Mussolini's fall and the armistice

   Mussolini was ousted in July 1943 and Italy signed an armistice with the Allies on 8 September; Germany then occupied the north, and a violent civil war and Resistance followed.

   Liberal Italy, Fascism, War and the Republic

   Sources: Italy (Fascism, racial laws and the Second World War) (United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Holocaust Encyclopedia) · Italy (country overview and history) (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

Oceania

1. SLBWar & Rupture

   Solomon Islands · February 1943

   Japanese evacuate Guadalcanal

   After a six-month seesaw campaign, Japan withdraws its forces; Guadalcanal becomes a turning point of the Pacific War.

   Guadalcanal and the Turning of the Pacific War

   Sources: Battle of Guadalcanal (Encyclopædia Britannica) · The Battle of Guadalcanal (The National WWII Museum, New Orleans)

Africa

1. COGPolitics & Power

   Congo · 30 January – 8 February 1944

   The Brazzaville Conference

   De Gaulle convened the Brazzaville Conference in early 1944, which promised post-war colonial reforms — ending the harshest forced labour, granting African representation and citizenship — while explicitly rejecting independence.

   French Equatorial Africa, forced labour, and the Congo-Ocean Railway

   Sources: Brazzaville Conference (Wikipedia) · The Brazzaville Conference, 1944 (BlackPast.org)

2. CIVPolitics & Power

   Ivory Coast

   Houphouët-Boigny founds the African Agricultural Union

   Félix Houphouët-Boigny organised African cocoa and coffee planters into the Syndicat Agricole Africain to win them the rights enjoyed by European growers — the start of his rise to political leadership.

   Colony, forced labour, and the road to independence

   Sources: History of Côte d'Ivoire (Encyclopædia Britannica) · Félix Houphouët-Boigny (Wikipedia) · Houphouët-Boigny, Félix (Encyclopaedia Africana)

3. LBRPolitics & Power

   Liberia

   William Tubman becomes president

   William V. S. Tubman took office as president and would govern until 1971, launching the 'Open Door' policy of foreign investment and the 'National Unification' policy toward the indigenous interior.

   The Tubman era and the 1980 coup

   Sources: William V. S. Tubman (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · William V. S. Tubman (1895–1971) (BlackPast.org)

4. MWIPolitics & Power

   Malawi

   Founding of the Nyasaland African Congress

   African political associations coalesced into the Nyasaland African Congress, the first territory-wide nationalist body, which would later spearhead opposition to federation.

   Protectorate, Nyasaland and the Chilembwe rising

   Sources: Malawi (country overview and history) (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · History of Malawi (Wikipedia)

Asia

1. LBNIndependence

   Lebanon · 8 September 1944

   U.S. recognition of Lebanon

   The United States formally recognises Lebanon as an independent state, and establishes diplomatic relations later that year.

   Independence and the Golden Age

   Sources: A Guide to the United States' History of Recognition: Lebanon (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian)

Europe

1. ALBPolitics & Power

   Albania

   Communist victory and Hoxha in power

   As German forces withdrew, the communist-led partisans took Tirana and formed a provisional government under Enver Hoxha, who would rule Albania for over four decades.

   The Second World War and Hoxha's Stalinist Albania

   Sources: Enver Hoxha (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · History of Albania (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

2. BGRPolitics & Power

   Bulgaria · 9 Sep 1944

   Communist seizure of power

   As Soviet forces entered Bulgaria, a Communist-led Fatherland Front took power, beginning the communist era and the country's incorporation into the Soviet sphere.

   Communism, 1989 and the Return to Europe

   Sources: Bulgaria: The early communist era (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · About Bulgaria: History (Council of Ministers of the Republic of Bulgaria (gov.bg))

3. ESTWar & Rupture

   Estonia

   Soviet reoccupation

   After three years of Nazi occupation, the Soviet Union reconquered Estonia in 1944, beginning a second occupation marked by further mass deportations and armed 'Forest Brother' resistance.

   Occupation, Annexation and the Long Night

   Sources: Estonia: Independence lost (Soviet occupation, World War II) (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Commemoration in Tallinn of victims of the deportations of June 1941 (Government of the Republic of Estonia (valitsus.ee))

4. FINWar & Rupture

   Finland · 19 Sep 1944

   Moscow Armistice and cession of Petsamo

   The Moscow Armistice ended the Continuation War, restoring the 1940 border, returning Petsamo to the Soviet Union, leasing Porkkala as a naval base, and imposing reparations.

   The Winter War, the Continuation War and the Loss of Karelia

   Sources: Finland during World War II (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Draft Peace Treaty with Finland (Paris Peace Treaty terms) (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian (FRUS))

5. FRAWar & Rupture

   France · Aug 1944

   Liberation of Paris

   Allied and Free French forces liberate Paris after four years of occupation.

   The Republics & the Modern Nation

   Sources: France (Encyclopædia Britannica)

6. HUNCatastrophe

   Hungary · May–Jul 1944

   Deportation of the Hungarian Jews

   Between 15 May and 9 July 1944 about 437,000 Jews were deported, mostly to Auschwitz-Birkenau, where some three-quarters were murdered on arrival; Horthy halted the trains on 7 July.

   The Second World War and the Holocaust in Hungary

   Sources: The Holocaust in Hungary (United States Holocaust Memorial Museum)

7. HUNWar & Rupture

   Hungary · 19 Mar 1944

   German occupation of Hungary

   German forces occupied Hungary to keep it in the war and to deport its Jews, then the largest surviving Jewish community in Europe, numbering some 760,000 to 780,000 people.

   The Second World War and the Holocaust in Hungary

   Sources: The Holocaust in Hungary (United States Holocaust Memorial Museum)

8. HUNPolitics & Power

   Hungary · Oct 1944

   The Arrow Cross seizure of power

   After Horthy's attempt to leave the war, Germany installed the fascist Arrow Cross, which murdered thousands more Jews in Budapest before the Soviet conquest of the city.

   The Second World War and the Holocaust in Hungary

   Sources: The Holocaust in Hungary (United States Holocaust Memorial Museum)

9. ISLIndependence

   Iceland · 17 Jun 1944

   Founding of the Republic at Þingvellir

   After an overwhelming referendum, Icelanders proclaimed a republic at Þingvellir, ending the union with Denmark; Sveinn Björnsson became the first president and 17 June became the national day.

   Occupation, the Republic and NATO

   Sources: Iceland Becomes a Republic (EBSCO Research Starters) · History of Iceland from 1944 (nordics.info (Aarhus University)) · Sveinn Björnsson (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

10. LTUWar & Rupture

    Lithuania · 1944–c. 1953

    The Forest Brothers' partisan war

    Thousands of Lithuanians fought a guerrilla war against the returning Soviet forces; the partisan movement controlled much of the countryside before being crushed by the early 1950s.

    War, Soviet Occupation and the Partisan Struggle

    Sources: Genocide and Resistance Research Centre of Lithuania (Genocide and Resistance Research Centre of Lithuania (genocid.lt)) · History of Lithuania (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

11. LUXWar & Rupture

    Luxembourg · 16 Dec 1944

    Liberation and the Battle of the Bulge

    Allied forces liberated Luxembourg in September 1944, but the German Ardennes offensive launched on 16 December 1944 overran the north of the country, which had to be liberated a second time before war's end.

    Two World Wars and the End of Neutrality

    Sources: The Battle of the Bulge (The National WWII Museum) · Luxembourgers general strike against Nazi occupation, 1942 (Global Nonviolent Action Database, Swarthmore College)

12. LUXEconomy & Trade

    Luxembourg · 5 Sep 1944

    The Benelux customs convention

    The exiled governments of Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg signed a customs union in London on 5 September 1944, launching the Benelux that entered into force in 1948 and was deepened by the 1958 Economic Union.

    A Founder of the New Europe

    Sources: The Benelux (The Luxembourg Government (gouvernement.lu)) · Benelux Union: About us (Benelux Union) · Benelux: the first organisations and cooperative ventures in post-war Europe (CVCE (Centre Virtuel de la Connaissance sur l'Europe), University of Luxembourg)

13. MKDFormation

    North Macedonia · 2 Aug 1944

    Proclamation of a Macedonian state (ASNOM)

    The Anti-Fascist Assembly for the National Liberation of Macedonia met on St Elijah's Day 1944 and proclaimed a Macedonian state within a future Yugoslav federation.

    Partition, 'Vardar Macedonia' and the Yugoslav Republic

    Sources: North Macedonia: History (Ancient, Ottoman, Yugoslav) (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

14. POLWar & Rupture

    Poland · 1 Aug 1944

    The Warsaw Uprising

    The Polish Home Army rose against the German occupiers in Warsaw; after 63 days the rising was crushed, much of the city was destroyed and tens of thousands of civilians were killed.

    The Second Republic, the Second World War and the Nazi-Soviet Catastrophe

    Sources: Polish Victims (United States Holocaust Memorial Museum)

15. SMRPeoples & Migration

    San Marino · 1943–1944

    Refuge for 100,000 and liberation

    Neutral San Marino, with a population under 15,000, sheltered more than 100,000 wartime refugees, including Jews; after fighting crossed its soil in September 1944 it was liberated and its neutrality restored.

    The Arengo, Fascism and the World Wars

    Sources: World wars and fascism in San Marino, 1922-1945 (SanMarinoSite) · History of San Marino (Visit San Marino (official tourism site))

16. SMRWar & Rupture

    San Marino · 26 Jun 1944

    The bombing of San Marino

    Despite the republic's neutrality, a British air raid on 26 June 1944, based on faulty intelligence later admitted, killed about sixty people in the small state.

    The Arengo, Fascism and the World Wars

    Sources: World wars and fascism in San Marino, 1922-1945 (SanMarinoSite) · San Marino in World War II (World War II Database)

17. SVKWar & Rupture

    Slovakia · 29 Aug 1944

    Slovak National Uprising

    The Slovak National Uprising broke out at Banská Bystrica against the Tiso regime and German occupation; after two months of fighting the rising was crushed on 27 October 1944 amid brutal reprisals.

    Czechoslovakia, the Slovak State and the Uprising

    Sources: The Slovak National Uprising of 1944 (The National WWII Museum, New Orleans) · History of Slovakia (Slovakia.travel (official tourism portal))

18. VATWar & Rupture

    Vatican City · 4 Jun 1944

    Wartime neutrality and the liberation of Rome

    Vatican City kept to neutrality under Pius XII during the Second World War; though Rome was occupied and then liberated by the Allies on 4 June 1944, the Vatican itself was not occupied.

    The Lateran Treaty and the Birth of Vatican City

    Sources: Pius XII: World War II and the Holocaust (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

North America

1. GTMPolitics & Power

   Guatemala · 1944 CE

   October Revolution

   A popular uprising ends the Ubico dictatorship and ushers in democratic reform under Juan Jose Arevalo.

   Revolution, Coup, and Civil War

   Sources: Guatemala: History (Postcolonial period and after) (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952-1954, Guatemala (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian)

2. JAMPolitics & Power

   Jamaica · 1944 CE

   Universal adult suffrage

   A new constitution grants every adult the vote, the first in the British Caribbean, and Jamaica holds its first elections under it.

   Self-Government and Independence

   Sources: Jamaica: The independent country (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

Oceania

1. PNGWar & Rupture

   Papua New Guinea · November 1944 – August 1945

   The Bougainville campaign

   More than 30,000 Australians fought a long campaign of patrols and small actions on Bougainville, with over 500 killed, until the Japanese garrison surrendered in August 1945.

   The Second World War: Kokoda and Bougainville

   Sources: Bougainville's Hard Slog (1944–45 campaign) (Australian War Memorial) · Australians in the Kokoda Track Campaign, 21 July to 16 November 1942 (Anzac Portal, Australian Department of Veterans' Affairs)

2. SLBPolitics & Power

   Solomon Islands · 1944–1952

   The Maasina Rule movement

   A post-war Malaitan movement for self-government and custom, born of the wartime labour corps, is credited as an early step toward independence.

   Guadalcanal and the Turning of the Pacific War

   Sources: British Solomon Islands Protectorate, 1893–1978 (University of Queensland (Law)) · History of Solomon Islands (Encyclopædia Britannica)

Africa

1. DZAColonisation

   Algeria · 8 May 1945

   Sétif massacre

   A nationalist demonstration at Sétif on VE Day is met with mass killing of thousands of Algerians, radicalising the independence movement.

   French Conquest and Settler Colony

   Sources: History of Algeria (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Algerian War (EBSCO Research Starters)

Asia

1. BRNWar & Rupture

   Brunei · 10 June 1945

   Allied liberation

   Australian troops land in Brunei Bay during the Borneo Campaign, ending the Japanese occupation; the capital and much of the country lie in ruins from the fighting and must be rebuilt after the war.

   Oil, the Japanese Occupation, and the Road to Self-Government

   Sources: History of Brunei (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Bandar Seri Begawan (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

2. KHMWar & Rupture

   Cambodia · 9 March 1945

   Japan ends French rule; Sihanouk proclaims independence

   Japan removes the French administration in the closing months of the war, and King Sihanouk briefly proclaims Cambodian independence before France returns.

   Decline, Foreign Pressure, and the French Protectorate

   Sources: Cambodia Gains Independence from France (EBSCO Research Starters) · Cambodia: World War II and its aftermath (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

3. IDNIndependence

   Indonesia · 17 Aug 1945

   Proclamation of Independence

   Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta proclaim Indonesia an independent republic in Jakarta, days after Japan's surrender; they become president and vice-president the next day.

   Japanese Occupation, Independence and the Revolution

   Sources: Proclamation of Indonesian Independence (Wikipedia) · Indonesia Regains Its Independence (Research Starters) (EBSCO)

4. IDNWar & Rupture

   Indonesia · 1945–1949

   The Indonesian National Revolution

   Indonesians wage a four-year armed and diplomatic struggle against Dutch attempts to reimpose colonial rule, enduring two major Dutch offensives and heavy losses.

   Japanese Occupation, Independence and the Revolution

   Sources: Indonesia Regains Its Independence (Research Starters) (EBSCO)

5. JPNWar & Rupture

   Japan · 1945 CE

   Atomic bombings and surrender

   The United States drops atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki on August 6 and 9; Japan announces surrender, formalized on September 2, ending World War II.

   Meiji and Empire: Revolution from Above

   Sources: Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Pacific War (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

6. LAOWar & Rupture

   Laos · March-October 1945

   Japanese occupation and the Lao Issara

   Japan ousts the French administration in March 1945; after Japan's surrender, the nationalist Lao Issara (Free Lao) forms a provisional government to resist the return of French rule.

   The French Protectorate

   Sources: Lao Issara (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Laos: Under foreign rule (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

7. MNGIndependence

   Mongolia · October 1945

   Plebiscite affirms independence

   Mongolians affirm their independence in a plebiscite in October 1945. Inner Mongolia remains part of China.

   Independence, Revolution, and the People's Republic

   Sources: A Guide to the United States' History of Recognition, Diplomatic, and Consular Relations: Mongolia (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian) · Outer Mongolia (Wikipedia)

8. PRKPolitics & Power

   North Korea · 7-8 September 1945

   American forces land at Incheon

   MacArthur's Proclamation No. 1 (7 September) assumes military government over Korea south of 38 degrees north latitude. A small advance party of the US XXIV Corps had landed at Kimpo airfield near Seoul on 4 September; the bulk of the corps lands at Incheon and enters Seoul on 8 September.

   Colonial Rule and Division

   Sources: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945, Vol. VI, Doc. 776: Proclamation No. 1 by General Douglas MacArthur, 7 September 1945 (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian) · Policy and Direction: The First Year, Chapter II, The House Divided (James F. Schnabel, U.S. Army Center of Military History (text mirrored by Korean War Online))

9. PRKPolitics & Power

   North Korea · 15 August 1945

   Liberation and division at the 38th parallel

   Japan's surrender frees Korea but the peninsula is split along the 38th parallel into Soviet and American occupation zones, setting the stage for two rival states.

   Colonial Rule and Division

   Sources: The Korean War and Japan's Recovery (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian) · US Enters the Korean Conflict (U.S. National Archives)

10. PRKPolitics & Power

    North Korea · Night of 10-11 August 1945

    Rusk and Bonesteel propose the 38th parallel

    During an overnight meeting in John McCloy's Pentagon office, US Army officers Dean Rusk and Charles Bonesteel are asked to retire to an adjoining room and propose where US forces should accept Japan's surrender in Korea. They recommend the 38th parallel to include Seoul in the American area, though it lay further north than US forces could reach if the Soviet Union disagreed (Rusk's own later account, 1950).

    Colonial Rule and Division

    Sources: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945, Vol. VI, Doc. 771: Draft memorandum on Korea, with Dean Rusk's memorandum of 12 July 1950 on the 38th parallel (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian) · Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945, Vol. VI, Doc. 437: General Order No. 1 for the surrender of Japan (JCS memorandum, 14 August 1945) (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian)

11. PRKPolitics & Power

    North Korea · 16 August 1945

    Stalin does not object to General Order No. 1

    General Order No. 1, which assigns the Japanese surrender in Korea north of 38 degrees north latitude to Soviet forces and south of it to US forces, is approved by President Truman on 17 August. In his 16 August reply Stalin writes that he has no objection in principle to the order, asking only for changes concerning the Kuril Islands and northern Hokkaido; Rusk later recalled being surprised that the Soviet Union accepted the parallel.

    Colonial Rule and Division

    Sources: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945, Vol. VI, Doc. 450: Stalin to Truman on General Order No. 1, 16 August 1945 (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian) · Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945, Vol. VI, Doc. 437: General Order No. 1 for the surrender of Japan (JCS memorandum, 14 August 1945) (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian) · Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945, Vol. VI, Doc. 771: Draft memorandum on Korea, with Dean Rusk's memorandum of 12 July 1950 on the 38th parallel (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian)

12. KORPolitics & Power

    South Korea · 7-8 September 1945

    American forces land at Incheon

    MacArthur's Proclamation No. 1 (7 September) assumes military government over Korea south of 38 degrees north latitude. A small advance party of the US XXIV Corps had landed at Kimpo airfield near Seoul on 4 September; the bulk of the corps lands at Incheon and enters Seoul on 8 September.

    Division, the Korean War, and Authoritarian Rebuilding

    Sources: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945, Vol. VI, Doc. 776: Proclamation No. 1 by General Douglas MacArthur, 7 September 1945 (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian) · Policy and Direction: The First Year, Chapter II, The House Divided (James F. Schnabel, U.S. Army Center of Military History (text mirrored by Korean War Online))

13. KORPolitics & Power

    South Korea · 1945 CE

    Division at the 38th parallel

    The peninsula is split into Soviet and American occupation zones along the 38th parallel, setting the stage for two rival Korean states.

    Division, the Korean War, and Authoritarian Rebuilding

    Sources: The Korean War and Japan's Recovery (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian) · Korea (history) (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

14. KORIndependence

    South Korea · 15 August 1945

    Liberation from Japan

    Japan's surrender ends 35 years of colonial rule; Koreans celebrate Gwangbokjeol, the Restoration of Light, even as foreign occupation and division loom.

    Japanese Colonial Rule

    Sources: Korea Under Japanese Rule (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · The Korean War and Japan's Recovery (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian)

15. KORPolitics & Power

    South Korea · Night of 10-11 August 1945

    Rusk and Bonesteel propose the 38th parallel

    During an overnight meeting in John McCloy's Pentagon office, US Army officers Dean Rusk and Charles Bonesteel are asked to retire to an adjoining room and propose where US forces should accept Japan's surrender in Korea. They recommend the 38th parallel to include Seoul in the American area, though it lay further north than US forces could reach if the Soviet Union disagreed (Rusk's own later account, 1950).

    Japanese Colonial Rule

    Sources: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945, Vol. VI, Doc. 771: Draft memorandum on Korea, with Dean Rusk's memorandum of 12 July 1950 on the 38th parallel (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian) · Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945, Vol. VI, Doc. 437: General Order No. 1 for the surrender of Japan (JCS memorandum, 14 August 1945) (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian)

16. KORPolitics & Power

    South Korea · 16 August 1945

    Stalin does not object to General Order No. 1

    General Order No. 1, which assigns the Japanese surrender in Korea north of 38 degrees north latitude to Soviet forces and south of it to US forces, is approved by President Truman on 17 August. In his 16 August reply Stalin writes that he has no objection in principle to the order, asking only for changes concerning the Kuril Islands and northern Hokkaido; Rusk later recalled being surprised that the Soviet Union accepted the parallel.

    Japanese Colonial Rule

    Sources: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945, Vol. VI, Doc. 450: Stalin to Truman on General Order No. 1, 16 August 1945 (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian) · Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945, Vol. VI, Doc. 437: General Order No. 1 for the surrender of Japan (JCS memorandum, 14 August 1945) (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian) · Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945, Vol. VI, Doc. 771: Draft memorandum on Korea, with Dean Rusk's memorandum of 12 July 1950 on the 38th parallel (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian)

17. TWNPolitics & Power

    Taiwan · October 1945

    ROC takes over Taiwan

    After Japan's surrender, the Republic of China under the Nationalists (Kuomintang) takes over the administration of Taiwan from Japan.

    Handover, the February 28 Incident, and the ROC Relocation

    Sources: Taiwan: Early Nationalist rule (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

18. VNMIndependence

    Vietnam · 2 September 1945

    Declaration of independence

    As Japan surrenders, the Viet Minh seize power in the August Revolution and Ho Chi Minh proclaims the Democratic Republic of Vietnam in Hanoi's Ba Dinh Square.

    French Indochina

    Sources: Proclamation of Independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (1945) (Columbia University, Asia for Educators) · Ho Chi Minh (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

19. VNMCatastrophe

    Vietnam · 1944-1945 CE

    Great Vietnamese Famine

    Under Japanese occupation and wartime mismanagement, famine strikes northern Vietnam, killing an estimated one to two million people and deepening revolutionary discontent.

    French Indochina

    Sources: Vietnam (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

Europe

1. BLRPolitics & Power

   Belarus

   Founding member of the United Nations

   In recognition of the Belarusian people's role in defeating fascism, the Byelorussian SSR signed the UN Charter at San Francisco in 1945, becoming a founding member of the United Nations despite not being an independent state.

   Reunification, the Nazi Catastrophe and Soviet Belarus

   Sources: History of Belarus at the United Nations (Permanent Mission of the Republic of Belarus to the UN) · Belarus: The emergence of the Belorussian S.S.R. (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

2. BIHPolitics & Power

   Bosnia and Herzegovina

   Bosnia a republic of socialist Yugoslavia

   After the Partisan victory, Bosnia and Herzegovina became one of the six federal republics of Tito's socialist Yugoslavia, with its multi-ethnic society constitutionally recognised.

   The Second World War and Socialist Bosnia

   Sources: Bosnia and Herzegovina: History (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

3. HRVPolitics & Power

   Croatia

   Croatia in socialist Yugoslavia

   The Partisan victory under Tito made Croatia one of the six republics of a federal socialist Yugoslavia, ending the Ustase state and beginning four decades of communist rule.

   Yugoslavia, the Ustase Catastrophe and Socialist Croatia

   Sources: Croatia: World War II (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Croatia: History (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

4. CZEPeoples & Migration

   Czechia · 1945–1946

   Expulsion of the Sudeten Germans

   Under the Benes decrees and Allied agreement at Potsdam, Czechoslovakia stripped the citizenship and property of its Germans and expelled some three million Sudeten Germans, the largest forced migration in the history of the Czech lands.

   Expulsion, Communism, the Velvet Revolution and the Modern Republic

   Sources: Edvard Benes (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Sudetenland (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Potsdam Conference (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

5. DEUWar & Rupture

   Germany · 8 May 1945

   Unconditional surrender

   Germany surrendered unconditionally to the Allies, ending the Second World War in Europe and the Nazi regime amid the ruin of the country.

   Weimar, the Third Reich and the Second World War

   Sources: The Holocaust and World War II: Key Dates (United States Holocaust Memorial Museum)

6. HUNWar & Rupture

   Hungary · Feb 1945

   The siege of Budapest

   The months-long battle for the capital between German-Hungarian and Soviet forces destroyed much of historic Budapest, including the castle and the Danube bridges, as the Red Army completed its conquest of Hungary.

   The Second World War and the Holocaust in Hungary

   Sources: Budapest, including the Banks of the Danube, the Buda Castle Quarter and Andrássy Avenue (UNESCO World Heritage Centre) · The Holocaust in Hungary (United States Holocaust Memorial Museum)

7. LIECatastrophe

   Liechtenstein

   Confiscation under the Beneš decrees

   Czechoslovakia confiscated the vast Bohemian and Moravian estates of the House of Liechtenstein under the Beneš decrees, treating the family as German; the seized land, around 1,600 square kilometres, far exceeded the area of the principality.

   The Turn to Switzerland, Neutrality and the Beneš Decrees

   Sources: History of Czech–Liechtenstein relations (confiscations and 2009 relations) (Czech-Liechtenstein Society) · Certain Property (Liechtenstein v. Germany) — case overview (International Court of Justice) · Summary of the Judgment of 10 February 2005, Certain Property (Liechtenstein v. Germany) (International Court of Justice)

8. MNEPolitics & Power

   Montenegro

   Socialist Republic of Montenegro

   After wartime occupation and partisan resistance, Montenegro became one of the six federal republics of socialist Yugoslavia, with its capital at Titograd, today's Podgorica.

   War, the Podgorica Assembly and Yugoslav Montenegro

   Sources: Montenegro: History (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

9. MKDCulture & Ideas

   North Macedonia

   Socialist Republic of Macedonia and the codified language

   A People's (later Socialist) Republic of Macedonia was constituted as one of Yugoslavia's six republics, and a standard Macedonian literary language was codified for the first time.

   Partition, 'Vardar Macedonia' and the Yugoslav Republic

   Sources: North Macedonia: History (Ancient, Ottoman, Yugoslav) (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

10. RUSWar & Rupture

    Russia · 9 April – 2 August 1945

    Königsberg taken and assigned to the USSR

    The Red Army captured the East Prussian capital Königsberg on 9 April 1945, and at Potsdam the Allies agreed in principle to the ultimate transfer of the city and the area adjacent to it to the Soviet Union.

    The Soviet Union

    Sources: Protocol of the Proceedings of the Berlin (Potsdam) Conference, 1 August 1945 (The Avalon Project, Yale Law School) · Battle of Königsberg (Wikipedia)

11. SRBPolitics & Power

    Serbia

    Socialist Yugoslavia under Tito

    Tito's Partisans triumphed and built a socialist federation of six republics; after breaking with Stalin in 1948, Yugoslavia pursued non-alignment, with Serbia its largest republic.

    The Birth of Yugoslavia and the World Wars

    Sources: Josip Broz Tito (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

12. SVNPolitics & Power

    Slovenia

    Slovenia within socialist Yugoslavia

    Slovenia became one of the six republics of Tito's Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, developing into its most prosperous and industrialised member.

    Socialist Yugoslavia and the Road to Independence

    Sources: Slovenia since 1918 (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

Oceania

1. AUSPeoples & Migration

   Australia · 1945–1970s

   Post-war mass immigration

   A large post-war immigration programme brought millions of migrants, first from Europe and later from Asia and beyond, transforming Australia into a far more diverse society.

   The world wars, immigration, and the twentieth century

   Sources: The Immigration Restriction Act 1901 (National Archives of Australia) · Australia (country) (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

2. PNGPolitics & Power

   Papua New Guinea

   Papua and New Guinea united

   Australia combined its administration of Papua and the former German mandate into a single Territory of Papua and New Guinea, with the north held as a United Nations trust territory.

   Self-government and independence

   Sources: Papua New Guinea — The colonial period (Encyclopædia Britannica) · Independence of Papua New Guinea (National Archives of Australia)

Africa

1. CAFPolitics & Power

   Central African Republic

   An assembly, and a seat in Paris

   The territory gains its own assembly and representation in the French parliament; Barthélemy Boganda becomes the first Central African elected to it.

   French Equatorial Africa to Independence

   Sources: Central African Republic country profile (BBC News) · Barthélemy Boganda (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

2. COMColonisation

   Comoros

   Separate overseas territory

   The Comoros are detached from Madagascar and constituted as a distinct French overseas territory, beginning to acquire their own institutions.

   French Colonisation

   Sources: History of the Comoros (Wikipedia) · Comoros: History (Encyclopædia Britannica)

3. DJIPolitics & Power

   Djibouti

   Reorganised as an overseas territory

   French Somaliland becomes an overseas territory of the French Union, gaining representation in Paris and limited local institutions amid the wider decolonisation of Africa.

   The Railway and the Colony of French Somaliland

   Sources: Djibouti (country and history) (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · History of Djibouti (Wikipedia)

4. GABPolitics & Power

   Gabon

   Overseas territory of the French Union

   After the Second World War Gabon became an overseas territory within the French Union, gaining elected representation and laying the groundwork for African political movements led by figures such as Léon M'ba and Jean-Hilaire Aubame.

   Colonial Gabon and the road to independence

   Sources: History of Gabon (Encyclopædia Britannica) · Gabon — History (Nations Encyclopedia)

5. CIVPolitics & Power

   Ivory Coast

   Forced labour abolished

   On a bill closely associated with Houphouët-Boigny, the French parliament abolished forced labour throughout the empire in 1946; the same year he helped found the inter-territorial RDA and its Ivorian party, the PDCI.

   Colony, forced labour, and the road to independence

   Sources: History of Côte d'Ivoire (Encyclopædia Britannica) · Félix Houphouët-Boigny (Wikipedia) · Houphouët-Boigny, Félix (Encyclopaedia Africana)

6. MDGPolitics & Power

   Madagascar

   Madagascar becomes a French overseas territory

   Reorganisation gives Malagasy deputies representation in Paris; its failure to deliver independence sends nationalists to arms the following year.

   French Conquest & Colony

   Sources: Madagascar country profile (BBC News)

7. NAMPolitics & Power

   Namibia

   South Africa refuses UN trusteeship

   After the founding of the United Nations, South Africa refused to place the territory under UN trusteeship and sought to annex it, beginning a long international dispute over its status.

   South African rule, the mandate, and apartheid

   Sources: Namibia (country, history and government) (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Namibia (Wikipedia)

8. SDSPolitics & Power

   South Sudan

   Britain reverses course

   Colonial authorities abandon the Southern Policy and move to unite the south with the north, without meaningful consultation of southerners.

   The Condominium and the Southern Policy

   Sources: History of South Sudan (Wikipedia)

Asia

1. CHNWar & Rupture

   China · 1946 CE

   Chinese Civil War resumes; Communist victory

   After Japan's surrender, full-scale civil war between Nationalists and Communists resumes, ending in 1949 with Communist victory and the retreat of Chiang Kai-shek's Nationalist government to Taiwan.

   The Fall of the Empire: Republic, Warlords, and War

   Sources: China (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

2. JORIndependence

   Jordan · 25 May 1946

   Independence of the Hashemite Kingdom

   Following the Treaty of London, the British mandate ended and Transjordan became a fully independent kingdom, with Abdullah re-designated as king; 25 May is celebrated as Independence Day.

   The Arab Revolt, the Emirate of Transjordan and Independence

   Sources: A Guide to the United States' History of Recognition, Diplomatic, and Consular Relations, by Country: Jordan (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian) · Jordan: Transjordan, the Hashemite Kingdom, and the Palestine war (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

3. KWTEconomy & Trade

   Kuwait

   First oil exports

   Kuwait began exporting crude oil in 1946, launching the rapid transformation of the pearling port into a wealthy oil state.

   Oil, Independence, and the Welfare State

   Sources: Kuwait Oil Company (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Kuwait: History (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

4. LBNIndependence

   Lebanon · 31 December 1946

   French withdrawal completed

   The last French troops leave Lebanon, completing the country's transition to full sovereignty.

   Independence and the Golden Age

   Sources: History of Lebanon (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · A Guide to the United States' History of Recognition: Lebanon (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian)

5. MYSPolitics & Power

   Malaysia · Mar 1946

   Malayan Union opposition and the founding of UMNO

   Malay opposition to the centralising Malayan Union proposal gives rise to the United Malays National Organisation, the country's first major political party, and the union is soon replaced by the Federation of Malaya.

   Occupation, the Emergency and Merdeka

   Sources: Malaysia: Political transformation (occupation, federation, NEP) (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

6. PHLIndependence

   Philippines · 4 Jul 1946

   Independence of the Republic of the Philippines

   The United States relinquishes sovereignty and recognises Philippine independence under the Treaty of Manila; Manuel Roxas becomes first president of the republic.

   Japanese Occupation, Independence and the Marcos Dictatorship

   Sources: A Guide to the United States' History of Recognition: The Philippines (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian) · July 4, 1946: The Philippines Gained Independence from the United States (The National WWII Museum)

7. SYRIndependence

   Syria · 17 April 1946

   Independence — evacuation of French troops

   After international recognition in 1944, the last French soldiers leave Syria on 17 April 1946, marking full independence — still commemorated as Evacuation Day.

   The French Mandate and Independence

   Sources: A Guide to the History of Recognition, Diplomatic, and Consular Relations: Syria (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian) · Syria — history (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

8. THAPolitics & Power

   Thailand

   Death of King Ananda and accession of Bhumibol

   King Ananda Mahidol (Rama VIII) dies of a gunshot in unexplained circumstances and is succeeded by his brother Bhumibol Adulyadej (Rama IX).

   Constitutional Revolution, the Name Thailand, and the World Wars

   Sources: Bhumibol Adulyadej (Rama IX) (Encyclopædia Britannica) · Thailand (Encyclopædia Britannica)

9. VNMWar & Rupture

   Vietnam · 1946-1954 CE

   First Indochina War

   War between France and the Viet Minh ends with the French defeat at Dien Bien Phu on 7 May 1954, terminating French colonial rule in Vietnam.

   The Wars: Independence, Division, and Reunification

   Sources: First Indochina War (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Dien Bien Phu and the Fall of French Indochina, 1954 (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian)

Europe

1. AUTPolitics & Power

   Austria · 5 Sep 1946

   Gruber-De Gasperi Agreement on South Tyrol

   Austrian foreign minister Karl Gruber and Italian premier Alcide De Gasperi signed an accord committing Italy to grant autonomy and language and education rights to South Tyrol's German-speaking population.

   The Second Republic: Neutrality, South Tyrol and Europe

   Sources: De Gasperi-Gruber Agreement and the First Statute of Autonomy (Provincia autonoma di Trento)

2. BGRPolitics & Power

   Bulgaria

   People's Republic proclaimed

   A referendum abolished the monarchy and Bulgaria was proclaimed a People's Republic, a one-party communist state allied to the Soviet Union.

   Communism, 1989 and the Return to Europe

   Sources: Bulgaria: The early communist era (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

3. FRAPolitics & Power

   France · 19 March 1946

   French Guiana becomes a département

   A law of 19 March 1946, championed by deputies including Aimé Césaire and French Guiana’s Gaston Monnerville, makes Martinique, Guadeloupe, Réunion and French Guiana départements of France.

   The Republics & the Modern Nation

   Sources: 80 ans de la loi du 19 mars 1946 (Présidence de la République (Élysée))

4. GRCWar & Rupture

   Greece · 1946–1949

   Greek Civil War

   Following liberation, a civil war between communist and government forces tore the country apart until 1949, an early conflict of the Cold War that left lasting political divisions.

   The Modern Greek State

   Sources: The Greek Civil War, 1944–1949 (The National WWII Museum, New Orleans) · Greece (country overview and history) (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

5. ITAPolitics & Power

   Italy · 2 June 1946

   Birth of the Italian Republic

   In a referendum, Italians voted to abolish the monarchy and establish a republic; the new democratic constitution took effect on 1 January 1948.

   Liberal Italy, Fascism, War and the Republic

   Sources: Towards 2 June (1946 referendum and Republic Day) (Italian Ministry of Defence) · Italy (country overview and history) (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

6. MDACatastrophe

   Moldova · 1946–1947

   The man-made famine

   A famine aggravated by harsh Soviet grain requisitioning swept Moldavia in 1946-1947, killing well over a hundred thousand people in one of the least-known episodes of Stalinist terror.

   Soviet Moldavia: Annexation, Famine and Deportation

   Sources: A Moldavian Holodomor? The Great Famine in Soviet Moldova, 1946-1947 (Stanford University, Center for Russian, East European and Eurasian Studies) · Moldova: History (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

7. RUSPeoples & Migration

   Russia

   Königsberg becomes Kaliningrad

   The city was renamed Kaliningrad in honour of the Bolshevik leader Mikhail Kalinin; its German population was expelled and Soviet settlers repopulated the ruined city.

   The Soviet Union

   Sources: Kaliningrad (Wikipedia)

South America

1. ARGPolitics & Power

   Argentina · 1946 CE

   Peron elected president

   Juan Peron wins the presidency with broad working-class support, launching the Peronist movement that will dominate Argentine politics.

   The Peron Era and Political Turmoil

   Sources: Juan Peron (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Argentina (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

2. FLKPolitics & Power

   Falkland Islands

   Listed as a Non-Self-Governing Territory

   The Falkland Islands (Malvinas) were placed on the UN list of Non-Self-Governing Territories after the UK transmitted information under Article 73(e) of the Charter.

   Decolonisation and the Sovereignty Dispute

   Sources: Falkland Islands (Malvinas) — The United Nations and Decolonization (United Nations, Department of Political and Peacebuilding Affairs)

Africa

1. BFAColonisation

   Burkina Faso · 4 September 1947

   Upper Volta reconstituted

   After the war and Mossi pressure, Upper Volta is re-established within its former boundaries as a French West African territory.

   Conquest and the Colony of Upper Volta

   Sources: French Upper Volta (Wikipedia) · Background Notes: Burkina Faso (U.S. Department of State)

2. CPVCatastrophe

   Cape Verde · 1941–43 and 1947–48

   The twentieth-century famines

   Two further droughts brought famines that together killed tens of thousands; starving refugees were interned in camps outside Praia, and survivors emigrated in growing numbers, deepening the diaspora.

   Creole culture, the coaling port, and the years of hunger

   Sources: Famine in Cape Verde (Wikipedia) · History of Cape Verde (Wikipedia) · History of Cabo Verde (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

3. COMPolitics & Power

   Comoros

   Overseas territory with representation

   The Comoros are confirmed as a French overseas territory and given representation in the French Parliament and a local assembly.

   Autonomy and Independence

   Sources: Comoros: History (Encyclopædia Britannica) · History of the Comoros (Wikipedia)

4. GHAPolitics & Power

   Ghana

   Nkrumah returns to lead the nationalists

   The United Gold Coast Convention invited the foreign-educated organiser Kwame Nkrumah home as its secretary, energising the movement for self-government and independence.

   The British Gold Coast colony

   Sources: Kwame Nkrumah (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Ghana (country overview and history) (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

5. GINPolitics & Power

   Guinea · c. 1947

   Rise of the Parti Démocratique de Guinée

   Postwar political mobilisation gives rise to the PDG, which under Ahmed Sékou Touré becomes the leading nationalist party in the colony.

   French Guinea

   Sources: Guinea — History (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Guinea Gains Independence from France (EBSCO Research Starters)

6. KENPolitics & Power

   Kenya

   Kenyatta leads the Kenya African Union

   Jomo Kenyatta, back from years in Britain, becomes president of the Kenya African Union, the leading vehicle of African nationalist demands.

   British East Africa and the Settler Colony

   Sources: Jomo Kenyatta (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · History of Kenya (Wikipedia)

7. MDGWar & Rupture

   Madagascar · 1947–1948

   The Malagasy Uprising

   A nationalist insurrection from March 1947 is suppressed with great loss of life; estimates range up to roughly 90,000 dead.

   French Conquest & Colony

   Sources: Malagasy Uprising (Wikipedia) · In Madagascar, People Remember One of the Deadliest French Colonial Wars in History (Global Voices)

8. SDSPolitics & Power

   South Sudan

   Juba Conference

   Northern and southern representatives meet at Juba to discuss the south's place in a future Sudan, but southern delegates have little leverage over the outcome.

   The Condominium and the Southern Policy

   Sources: History of South Sudan (Wikipedia)

Asia

1. BGDPolitics & Power

   Bangladesh

   Partition creates East Pakistan

   The partition of British India makes Muslim-majority eastern Bengal into East Pakistan, a wing of the new state separated from its western half by a thousand miles of India.

   Partition, East Pakistan and the Language Movement

   Sources: History of Bangladesh (Encyclopædia Britannica)

2. INDIndependence

   India · 15 Aug 1947

   Independence and Partition

   India becomes independent from Britain under Prime Minister Nehru as the subcontinent is partitioned into India and Pakistan, unleashing mass migration and communal violence.

   Independence, Partition and the Modern Republic

   Sources: Partition of India (Wikipedia) · Republic Day, India (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

3. INDIndependence

   India · 26 Oct 1947

   Instrument of Accession of Jammu and Kashmir

   Maharaja Hari Singh signed an Instrument of Accession to India, effective on Governor-General Mountbatten's acceptance on 27 October. Mountbatten added that the question should be settled by a reference to the people once order was restored. India says the accession was lawful, complete and final. Pakistan says it was obtained under duress and in breach of the Standstill Agreement, and has not accepted it.

   Independence, Partition and the Modern Republic

   Sources: Instrument of Accession (Jammu and Kashmir) (Wikipedia)

4. INDPeoples & Migration

   India · 1947–1948

   Partition violence and mass migration

   Up to 12–20 million people are uprooted and an estimated one to two million die in massacres and forced migration along the new India–Pakistan border.

   Independence, Partition and the Modern Republic

   Sources: Partition of India (Wikipedia)

5. JPNPolitics & Power

   Japan · 1947 CE

   Pacifist constitution takes effect

   Japan's postwar constitution establishes democracy and popular sovereignty, makes the emperor a symbol of the state, and renounces war under Article 9.

   Postwar Japan: Reconstruction and the Modern Nation

   Sources: Occupation and Reconstruction of Japan, 1945-52 (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian)

6. MMRPolitics & Power

   Myanmar · 19 July 1947

   Assassination of Aung San

   Aung San, who had negotiated independence with Britain, is assassinated with most of his cabinet months before the transfer of power.

   The Anglo-Burmese Wars and British Rule

   Sources: Aung San (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · A Guide to the United States' History of Recognition, Diplomatic, and Consular Relations: Burma (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian)

7. PAKIndependence

   Pakistan · 14 Aug 1947

   Independence of Pakistan

   Pakistan becomes independent under the Indian Independence Act, with Jinnah as Governor-General and Liaquat Ali Khan as prime minister, comprising West and East Pakistan.

   Partition and Independence

   Sources: Mohammed Ali Jinnah (Encyclopædia Britannica) · Indian Independence Act (Encyclopædia Britannica)

8. PAKIndependence

   Pakistan · 18 Jul 1947

   Indian Independence Act passed

   The British Parliament passes the Indian Independence Act, partitioning British India and providing for the creation of the dominions of India and Pakistan.

   The British Raj and the Pakistan Movement

   Sources: Indian Independence Act (Encyclopædia Britannica)

9. PAKIndependence

   Pakistan · 26 Oct 1947

   Instrument of Accession of Jammu and Kashmir

   Maharaja Hari Singh signed an Instrument of Accession to India, effective on Governor-General Mountbatten's acceptance on 27 October. Mountbatten added that the question should be settled by a reference to the people once order was restored. India says the accession was lawful, complete and final. Pakistan says it was obtained under duress and in breach of the Standstill Agreement, and has not accepted it.

   Partition and Independence

   Sources: Instrument of Accession (Jammu and Kashmir) (Wikipedia)

10. PAKPeoples & Migration

    Pakistan · 1947–1948

    Partition migration and violence

    The Radcliffe Line divides Punjab and Bengal, and millions are uprooted across the new borders amid massacres and mass migration, with deaths estimated from the hundreds of thousands into the millions.

    Partition and Independence

    Sources: Radcliffe Line (Encyclopædia Britannica) · Indian Independence Act (Encyclopædia Britannica)

11. PAKPolitics & Power

    Pakistan · 24 Oct 1947

    Poonch revolt and the Azad Kashmir government

    Unrest in the Poonch district over taxes and disarmament became an armed revolt from late August 1947, and a Provisional Azad Kashmir government was proclaimed on 24 October. Christopher Snedden holds that the revolt was largely local, with unofficial Pakistani help at first; other accounts say Pakistani Muslim League figures organised or assisted it. Indian accounts date the start of the conflict to the tribal entry of 22 October; Pakistani accounts describe a local rising.

    Partition and Independence

    Sources: The forgotten Poonch uprising of 1947 (Seminar 643 (Christopher Snedden))

12. PSEPolitics & Power

    Palestine · 29 November 1947

    UN Partition Plan (Resolution 181)

    The UN General Assembly recommended partition into Jewish and Arab states with Jerusalem internationalised; accepted by Zionist leaders and rejected by Palestinian and Arab leaders.

    The British Mandate and the Nakba

    Sources: General Assembly Resolution 181 (II): Future Government of Palestine (United Nations) · Palestine - region, history (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

13. TWNPolitics & Power

    Taiwan · 28 February 1947

    February 28 Incident

    Protests against Nationalist rule, triggered by a violent monopoly-enforcement episode in Taipei, are crushed by troops; thousands are killed, beginning the long repression known as the White Terror.

    Handover, the February 28 Incident, and the ROC Relocation

    Sources: Taiwan: Early Nationalist rule (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · White Terror (Taiwan) (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

Europe

1. FINPeoples & Migration

   Finland

   Paris Peace Treaty and the Karelian evacuees

   The 1947 Paris Peace Treaty confirmed the cession of Karelia and Petsamo and reparations of 300 million dollars; some 400,000 Karelian evacuees were resettled within Finland's new borders.

   The Winter War, the Continuation War and the Loss of Karelia

   Sources: Draft Peace Treaty with Finland (Paris Peace Treaty terms) (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian (FRUS)) · Finland during World War II (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

2. GRCPolitics & Power

   Greece · 10 February 1947 (in force 15 September 1947)

   The Dodecanese pass to Greece under the Paris Peace Treaty

   Article 14 of the treaty with Italy ceded the Dodecanese, including Kastellorizo, to Greece in full sovereignty and provided that the islands be demilitarised. They were formally united with Greece on 7 March 1948.

   The Modern Greek State

   Sources: Issues of Greek-Turkish relations (Greek position) (Hellenic Ministry of Foreign Affairs) · The Outstanding Aegean Issues; Background Note on Aegean Dispute (Turkish position) (Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Foreign Affairs)

3. POLPolitics & Power

   Poland

   Establishment of communist rule

   Backed by the Soviet Union and rigged elections, a communist government consolidated power, founding the Polish People's Republic within the Soviet bloc.

   Communist Poland, Solidarity and the Modern Republic

   Sources: Lech Walesa (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Solidarity (Polish trade union) (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

4. ROUPolitics & Power

   Romania

   Communist takeover and the People's Republic

   After the war Romania was drawn into the Soviet bloc; the Paris treaty restored northern Transylvania, but Bessarabia stayed Soviet, the monarchy was abolished and a communist People's Republic proclaimed.

   Dismemberment, the Second World War and communist rule

   Sources: Romania (United States Holocaust Memorial Museum) · Ceausescu Is Overthrown in Romania (EBSCO Research Starters)

5. GBRIndependence

   United Kingdom

   Independence of India and the start of decolonisation

   India and Pakistan became independent, beginning the rapid dismantling of the British Empire as dozens of colonies gained independence over the following decades.

   World wars, decolonisation, and the modern UK

   Sources: The end of the British Empire after the Second World War (Imperial War Museums)

South America

1. PRYPolitics & Power

   Paraguay · 1947 CE

   Paraguayan Civil War

   A brief, bloody civil war ends in victory for the Colorado Party, entrenching one-party dominance and clearing the path to authoritarian rule.

   Rebuilding and the Chaco War

   Sources: History of Paraguay (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

Oceania

1. NZLIndependence

   New Zealand · 25 November 1947

   Statute of Westminster adopted

   New Zealand adopted the Statute of Westminster, ending the British Parliament's power to legislate for it and confirming the country's full legal independence — the last Dominion to do so.

   Nationhood, the world wars, and the welfare state

   Sources: Statute of Westminster enacted (NZ History (Manatū Taonga — Ministry for Culture and Heritage)) · New Zealand (country) (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

Africa

1. BWAPolitics & Power

   Botswana

   Seretse Khama marries Ruth Williams

   Bangwato heir Seretse Khama marries Englishwoman Ruth Williams in London, igniting a crisis with apartheid South Africa and Britain.

   The Bechuanaland Protectorate

   Sources: Sir Seretse Khama (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Seretse Khama (Wikipedia)

2. CMRPolitics & Power

   Cameroon

   Founding of the UPC

   Ruben Um Nyobe and others founded the Union des Populations du Cameroun, a nationalist party demanding immediate independence and the reunification of French and British Cameroon.

   Partition: French Cameroun and British Cameroons

   Sources: Ruben Um Nyobe (1913–1958) (BlackPast.org) · Cameroon (country overview and history) (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

3. ZAFPolitics & Power

   South Africa

   National Party institutes apartheid

   The National Party won the 1948 election and began enacting apartheid, including the Population Registration Act and Group Areas Act of 1950, codifying racial classification, segregation and forced removals.

   Apartheid and the liberation struggle

   Sources: Apartheid (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · The Group Areas Act of 1950 (South African History Online)

Asia

1. INDPolitics & Power

   India · 21 Apr 1948

   UN Security Council Resolution 47

   The Council recommended that Pakistan secure the withdrawal of tribesmen and non-resident Pakistani nationals, that India reduce its forces to the minimum needed for order, and that a UN Plebiscite Administrator be appointed. It was adopted paragraph by paragraph, with no objection and with the Soviet Union and the Ukrainian SSR abstaining. No plebiscite was held: India says Pakistan never took the first step of withdrawal, while Pakistan says India refused each demilitarisation scheme.

   Independence, Partition and the Modern Republic

   Sources: UN Security Council Resolution 47 (1948) (United Nations)

2. MYSWar & Rupture

   Malaysia

   The Malayan Emergency

   After the Malayan Communist Party launches a guerrilla insurgency, the government declares a state of emergency on 18 June 1948, beginning a counterinsurgency that lasts until 1960.

   Occupation, the Emergency and Merdeka

   Sources: Malayan Emergency (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

3. MMRIndependence

   Myanmar · 4 January 1948

   Independence of the Union of Burma

   Burma becomes a fully independent republic outside the Commonwealth under Prime Minister U Nu, soon facing communist and ethnic insurgencies.

   Independence, Ne Win, and Decades of Military Rule

   Sources: History of Myanmar (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · A Guide to the United States' History of Recognition, Diplomatic, and Consular Relations: Burma (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian)

4. PRKFormation

   North Korea · 9 September 1948

   Founding of the DPRK

   The Democratic People's Republic of Korea is proclaimed under Kim Il Sung, weeks after the Republic of Korea is established in the south, institutionalizing the division.

   Colonial Rule and Division

   Sources: History of North Korea (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Kim Il-Sung (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

5. PAKPolitics & Power

   Pakistan · 21 Apr 1948

   UN Security Council Resolution 47

   The Council recommended that Pakistan secure the withdrawal of tribesmen and non-resident Pakistani nationals, that India reduce its forces to the minimum needed for order, and that a UN Plebiscite Administrator be appointed. It was adopted paragraph by paragraph, with no objection and with the Soviet Union and the Ukrainian SSR abstaining. No plebiscite was held: India says Pakistan never took the first step of withdrawal, while Pakistan says India refused each demilitarisation scheme.

   Partition and Independence

   Sources: UN Security Council Resolution 47 (1948) (United Nations)

6. PSEWar & Rupture

   Palestine · 1947-1949

   The Nakba

   During the war surrounding Israel's establishment, around 700,000 Palestinians were expelled or fled and, per UN figures, more than 500 villages were depopulated and destroyed.

   The British Mandate and the Nakba

   Sources: About the Nakba (United Nations (Question of Palestine)) · Nakba (Wikipedia) · Palestine - region, history (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

7. KORPolitics & Power

   South Korea · 10 May 1948

   Election in the south

   Elections for a National Assembly are held in South Korea, with an estimated 80 percent of eligible voters taking part; the North does not take part or recognize the result, and the UN commission is barred from the North. The UN Temporary Commission on Korea reports the results valid.

   Division, the Korean War, and Authoritarian Rebuilding

   Sources: Policy and Direction: The First Year, Chapter II, The House Divided (James F. Schnabel, U.S. Army Center of Military History (text mirrored by Korean War Online))

8. KORFormation

   South Korea · 15 August 1948

   Republic of Korea proclaimed

   South Korea is established under President Syngman Rhee after a constitution is promulgated and UN-observed elections held; the DPRK is founded in the north weeks later.

   Division, the Korean War, and Authoritarian Rebuilding

   Sources: Syngman Rhee (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Korea (history) (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

9. LKAIndependence

   Sri Lanka · 4 Feb 1948

   Independence of the Dominion of Ceylon

   Ceylon becomes an independent dominion within the Commonwealth as its 1947 constitution takes effect, with D. S. Senanayake as first prime minister.

   British Ceylon and the Road to Independence

   Sources: History of Sri Lanka: Independent Ceylon (1948–71) (Encyclopædia Britannica) · Path to Freedom: 1815 Convention and Dominion Status (Department of National Archives, Sri Lanka) · A Guide to the United States' History of Recognition: Sri Lanka (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian)

10. TKMCatastrophe

    Turkmenistan · 6 October 1948

    Ashgabat earthquake

    A devastating earthquake struck Ashgabat, destroying the city and killing tens of thousands of people in one of the deadliest seismic disasters in Soviet history.

    Soviet Turkmenistan

    Sources: Turkmenistan: A Country Study (in 'Kazakstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan: Country Studies') (Library of Congress, Federal Research Division) · Turkmenistan (Encyclopædia Britannica)

Europe

1. ALBPolitics & Power

   Albania · 1948 & 1961

   Breaks with Yugoslavia and the USSR

   Hoxha broke with Tito's Yugoslavia in 1948 and allied with the Soviet Union, then ruptured with Moscow in 1961 over de-Stalinisation, turning instead to Maoist China.

   The Second World War and Hoxha's Stalinist Albania

   Sources: Enver Hoxha (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

2. CZEPolitics & Power

   Czechia · Feb 1948

   Communist coup

   In February 1948 the Communist Party seized full power in Czechoslovakia, ending postwar democracy and bringing the country firmly into the Soviet bloc for the next four decades.

   Expulsion, Communism, the Velvet Revolution and the Modern Republic

   Sources: Czechoslovak history (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Vaclav Havel (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

3. FINPolitics & Power

   Finland

   Treaty with the Soviet Union and neutrality

   A 1948 treaty of friendship with the Soviet Union framed Finland's Cold War policy of strict neutrality and non-alignment, later known as 'Finlandization', under which it preserved its democracy and independence.

   Neutrality, the European Union and NATO

   Sources: History of Finland (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · History of Finland (InfoFinland (Finnish public authorities))

4. DEUPolitics & Power

   Germany · 24 Jun 1948 – 12 May 1949

   The Berlin Blockade and Airlift

   Berlin, divided into four sectors but located far inside the Soviet zone, was cut off when Soviet forces blockaded rail, road and water access to its western sectors; the United States and Britain flew in food and fuel, at the height one plane landing every 45 seconds at Tempelhof, until the blockade was lifted on 12 May 1949. West Berlin remained an enclave entirely surrounded by East Germany until 1990.

   Division, the Federal Republic and Reunification

   Sources: The Berlin Airlift, 1948–1949 (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian) · West Berlin (Wikipedia)

5. SVKPolitics & Power

   Slovakia

   Communist takeover

   The Communist Party seized full power in Czechoslovakia, establishing a one-party state under Soviet domination that would last for four decades.

   Communism, the Velvet Revolution and the Velvet Divorce

   Sources: Czechoslovakia (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Velvet Revolution (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

6. GBRPolitics & Power

   United Kingdom · 5 July 1948

   Founding of the National Health Service

   The post-war Labour government launched the NHS, providing healthcare free at the point of use and forming the centrepiece of Britain's new welfare state.

   World wars, decolonisation, and the modern UK

   Sources: The foundation of the NHS (The National Archives)

North America

1. CRIPolitics & Power

   Costa Rica · 1948 CE

   Disputed election sparks civil war

   The annulment of the 1948 election to bar president-elect Otilio Ulate triggers a brief but bloody civil war.

   Coffee, Bananas, and a Maturing Democracy

   Sources: Jose Figueres Ferrer (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Otilio Ulate (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

2. CRIWar & Rupture

   Costa Rica · 1948 CE

   Figueres leads the civil war

   Jose Figueres Ferrer leads an armed uprising in support of president-elect Ulate; the six-week war, from 12 March to 24 April 1948, ends with the government's surrender. Estimates of the dead vary: the National Museum counts more than 500, while Britannica gives about 2,000.

   Civil War and the Abolition of the Army

   Sources: Jose Figueres Ferrer (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Las Fuerzas Armadas en Costa Rica (Museo Nacional de Costa Rica)

3. CRIPolitics & Power

   Costa Rica · 1 Dec 1948

   The army abolished at the Bellavista barracks

   At the Bellavista barracks in San Jose, Figueres strikes a battlement with a sledgehammer in the symbolic abolition of the army; the building is handed to the National Museum, and the abolition takes full effect in 1949.

   Civil War and the Abolition of the Army

   Sources: Las Fuerzas Armadas en Costa Rica (Museo Nacional de Costa Rica) · Abolicion del ejercito (Museo Nacional de Costa Rica)

4. PRIPolitics & Power

   Puerto Rico · 1948 CE

   First elected governor

   Luis Muñoz Marín is elected the island's first governor; his administration launches Operation Bootstrap to industrialise the economy.

   The Commonwealth and the Status Question

   Sources: Luis Muñoz Marín (Encyclopædia Britannica) · Puerto Rico: The Commonwealth (Encyclopædia Britannica)

South America

1. COLPolitics & Power

   Colombia · 9 Apr 1948

   Assassination of Gaitan and the Bogotazo

   The killing of Liberal leader Jorge Eliecer Gaitan triggers the Bogotazo riots that devastate Bogota and ignite a decade of bloodshed.

   La Violencia and the National Front

   Sources: History of Colombia (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Colombia: A Country Study (U.S. Library of Congress, Federal Research Division)

2. COLWar & Rupture

   Colombia · c. 1948-1958

   La Violencia

   Partisan warfare between Liberals and Conservatives ravages the countryside, killing an estimated two hundred thousand or more Colombians.

   La Violencia and the National Front

   Sources: History of Colombia (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Colombia: A Country Study (U.S. Library of Congress, Federal Research Division)

Africa

1. CAFPolitics & Power

   Central African Republic · 28 September 1949

   Boganda founds MESAN

   Barthélemy Boganda, the territory's first deputy to the French National Assembly, founded the Movement for the Social Evolution of Black Africa, the engine of Central African nationalism.

   French Equatorial Africa to Independence

   Sources: Barthélemy Boganda (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Barthélemy Boganda (New World Encyclopedia) · Movement for the Social Evolution of Black Africa (MESAN) (Wikipedia)

2. GHAPolitics & Power

   Ghana

   Nkrumah founds the Convention People's Party

   Breaking from the UGCC, Kwame Nkrumah founded the CPP and launched a mass campaign for immediate self-government, transforming Gold Coast nationalism into a popular movement.

   Independence and the Nkrumah era

   Sources: Kwame Nkrumah (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Ghana (country overview and history) (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

Asia

1. BTNPolitics & Power

   Bhutan

   The treaty with independent India

   Delhi guarantees non-interference in Bhutan's internal affairs while retaining influence over its foreign relations — the terms of British Punakha, inherited by a new republic.

   Founding of the Wangchuck Monarchy

   Sources: Bhutan country profile (BBC News)

2. CHNFormation

   China · 1949 CE

   People's Republic of China proclaimed

   Mao Zedong proclaims the People's Republic of China from the Tiananmen gate in Beijing on 1 October 1949, with Zhou Enlai as premier, after Communist victory in the civil war.

   The People's Republic: Revolution, Upheaval, and Reform

   Sources: China (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Mao Zedong Proclaims a Communist People's Republic in China (EBSCO Research Starters)

3. IDNIndependence

   Indonesia · 27 Dec 1949

   Recognition of sovereignty

   Following the Round Table Conference in The Hague, the Netherlands formally transfers sovereignty and recognises the independence of Indonesia.

   Japanese Occupation, Independence and the Revolution

   Sources: Indonesia Regains Its Independence (Research Starters) (EBSCO) · Proclamation of Indonesian Independence (Wikipedia)

4. KAZCatastrophe

   Kazakhstan · 1949–1989

   Semipalatinsk nuclear test site

   The Soviet Union conducts some 456 nuclear tests at the Semipalatinsk site in northeastern Kazakhstan between 1949 and 1989, exposing local populations to radioactive fallout with severe long-term health effects.

   Soviet Kazakhstan

   Sources: Kazakhstan (Encyclopædia Britannica) · Kazakstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan: Country Studies (Library of Congress, Federal Research Division)

5. QATEconomy & Trade

   Qatar

   First oil exports begin

   Commercial export of Dukhan crude began in 1949, starting the transformation of an economy battered by the collapse of the pearl trade in the 1930s.

   Oil, the End of Pearls, and Independence

   Sources: Qatar: History (Persian Gulf, Oil, Gas) (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Persian Gulf States: Country Studies (Qatar) (Library of Congress, Federal Research Division)

6. LKAPolitics & Power

   Sri Lanka

   Indian Tamil plantation workers disenfranchised

   The estate workforce brought from South India is stripped of the vote a year after independence — the opening move of a nationalism that alienated the Tamil minority.

   British Ceylon and the Road to Independence

   Sources: Sri Lanka country profile (BBC News)

7. TWNPolitics & Power

   Taiwan · 1 October 1949

   People's Republic of China proclaimed

   Having defeated the Nationalists in the Chinese Civil War, Mao Zedong proclaims the People's Republic of China on the mainland; Chiang and his forces withdraw toward Taiwan.

   Handover, the February 28 Incident, and the ROC Relocation

   Sources: The Chinese Revolution of 1949 (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian)

8. TWNFormation

   Taiwan · December 1949

   ROC government relocates to Taiwan

   Chiang Kai-shek's Republic of China central government relocates to Taipei after defeat in the civil war, founding the present self-governing polity on the island; this was not a declaration of independence.

   Handover, the February 28 Incident, and the ROC Relocation

   Sources: The Chinese Revolution of 1949 (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian) · Chiang Kai-shek (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

Europe

1. BELPolitics & Power

   Belgium · 4 Apr 1949

   Founding member of NATO

   Belgium was one of twelve states that signed the North Atlantic Treaty in Washington on 4 April 1949; NATO headquarters later moved to Brussels in 1967.

   A Federal Kingdom at the Heart of Europe

   Sources: North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO): Belgium (Belgium FPS Foreign Affairs (diplomatie.belgium.be)) · 75 years of NATO: An Alliance firmly rooted in Belgium (Focus on Belgium (Federal Government of Belgium))

2. DNKPolitics & Power

   Denmark

   Founding member of NATO

   Abandoning its old neutrality after the occupation, Denmark became one of the twelve founding members of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949.

   Occupation, the Welfare State and the Modern Realm

   Sources: North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · A Guide to the History of Recognition, Diplomatic, and Consular Relations: Denmark (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian)

3. DEUPolitics & Power

   Germany · 23 May 1949

   Founding of the two German states

   The Basic Law established the Federal Republic of Germany in the west on 23 May 1949; the German Democratic Republic was founded in the Soviet zone on 7 October 1949, formalising the country's division.

   Division, the Federal Republic and Reunification

   Sources: Germany (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

4. HUNPolitics & Power

   Hungary

   The Hungarian People's Republic

   Backed by the Soviet Union, the communists seized total power and proclaimed a one-party People's Republic, imposing Stalinist terror, show trials and forced collectivisation under Mátyás Rákosi.

   Communism, 1956 and the Return to Europe

   Sources: János Kádár (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Hungarian Revolution (1956) (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

5. ISLPolitics & Power

   Iceland

   Iceland a founding member of NATO

   Abandoning neutrality, Iceland joined NATO as a founding member in 1949, a state with no army, on the understanding it would not host foreign troops in peacetime; the decision provoked a riot at the Althing.

   Occupation, the Republic and NATO

   Sources: Foreign Relations of the United States, 1949, Vol. IV (Iceland and the North Atlantic Treaty) (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian) · History of Iceland from 1944 (nordics.info (Aarhus University))

6. IRLIndependence

   Ireland · 18 Apr 1949

   Declaration of the Republic

   The Republic of Ireland Act, signed 21 December 1948 and in force from 18 April 1949, declared the twenty-six-county state a republic, removed the King's last role and left the Commonwealth.

   Rising, Independence and Partition

   Sources: Republic of Ireland Act comes into effect in 1949 (IrishCentral)

7. LVACatastrophe

   Latvia · Mar 1949

   The March 1949 deportations

   In Operation Priboi the Soviet authorities deported tens of thousands of Latvians to Siberia, many of them farmers resisting collectivisation, in the largest single act of repression of the postwar years.

   Soviet Rule, Restoration and the Return to Europe

   Sources: About the Museum (Museum of the Occupation of Latvia) · History of Latvia (Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Latvia)

8. LUXPolitics & Power

   Luxembourg · 4 Apr 1949

   Founding member of NATO

   Having renounced its enforced neutrality, Luxembourg was one of the twelve states that signed the North Atlantic Treaty in Washington on 4 April 1949, founding the Atlantic alliance.

   A Founder of the New Europe

   Sources: A short history of NATO (founding members, 1949) (North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)) · Benelux: the first organisations and cooperative ventures in post-war Europe (CVCE (Centre Virtuel de la Connaissance sur l'Europe), University of Luxembourg)

9. MDACatastrophe

   Moldova · 6 Jul 1949

   Operation South deportations

   On the night of 5-6 July 1949 Soviet authorities deported tens of thousands of Moldavians condemned as kulaks to Siberia and Kazakhstan, accelerating the forced collectivization of agriculture.

   Soviet Moldavia: Annexation, Famine and Deportation

   Sources: Moldova Commemorates Victims of Soviet Deportations (Balkan Insight (BIRN)) · Moldova: History (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

10. NLDIndependence

    Netherlands · 27 Dec 1949

    Indonesian independence

    After a violent four-year war, the Netherlands transfers sovereignty over the Dutch East Indies to the Republic of Indonesia.

    The World Wars, Decolonisation and the Modern Netherlands

    Sources: Netherlands (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Independence, Decolonization, Violence and War in Indonesia, 1945–1950 (NIOD Institute for War, Holocaust and Genocide Studies)

11. NORPolitics & Power

    Norway

    Norway joins NATO

    Abandoning prewar neutrality, Norway became a founding member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, anchoring its security in the Western alliance.

    Oil Wealth, the European Question and the Arctic Boundary

    Sources: Norway: World War II (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

12. GBRPolitics & Power

    United Kingdom · 2 June 1949

    Ireland Act affirms Northern Ireland's status

    Recognising that Éire had ceased to be part of His Majesty's dominions on 18 April 1949, the Ireland Act affirmed that Northern Ireland would not cease to be part of the United Kingdom without the consent of the Parliament of Northern Ireland.

    World wars, decolonisation, and the modern UK

    Sources: Ireland Act 1949 (as enacted) (legislation.gov.uk (The National Archives))

North America

1. CRIPolitics & Power

   Costa Rica · 7 Nov 1949

   Article 12 proscribes the army

   Article 12 of the new constitution proscribes the army as a permanent institution and provides the necessary police forces for public order; military forces may be raised only by continental agreement or for national defence, subordinate to civilian power.

   Civil War and the Abolition of the Army

   Sources: Costa Rica's Constitution of 1949 with Amendments through 2020 (Constitute Project) · Las Fuerzas Armadas en Costa Rica (Museo Nacional de Costa Rica)

2. CRIPolitics & Power

   Costa Rica · 1949 CE

   Constitution abolishes the army

   Figueres's junta promulgates a new constitution that bans a standing army, grants women the vote, and nationalises the banks, then hands power to Ulate.

   Civil War and the Abolition of the Army

   Sources: Jose Figueres Ferrer (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Otilio Ulate (Encyclopaedia Britannica)