20 records
Africa
- BDIPolitics & Power
Burundi · 28 Aug 2000
Arusha Peace Agreement
The Arusha Peace and Reconciliation Agreement, mediated by Nyerere and then Mandela, sets out ethnic power-sharing and a path out of the war.
Democracy, Assassination and Civil War
Sources: Arusha Accords (Burundi) (Wikipedia) · Burundi: Why the Arusha Accords are Central (Africa Center for Strategic Studies)
- GNQEconomy & Trade
Equatorial Guinea · 2000s onward
Wealth amid deep inequality
Oil gave Equatorial Guinea one of Africa's highest GDP-per-capita figures, yet much of the population remained poor; the government faced sustained criticism over corruption, human rights and the concentration of wealth in the ruling family.
Obiang, oil, and inequality
Sources: Equatorial Guinea (Encyclopædia Britannica) · History of Equatorial Guinea (Wikipedia)
- ERIPolitics & Power
Eritrea · 12 December 2000
Algiers Agreement
Eritrea and Ethiopia sign the Algiers peace agreement; a boundary commission later awards Badme to Eritrea, but Ethiopia refuses to withdraw, leaving a frozen stand-off.
Independence, Border War and the Closed State
Sources: Algiers Agreement (2000) (Wikipedia)
- GHAPolitics & Power
First democratic alternation of power
John Kufuor of the New Patriotic Party defeated the ruling NDC, the first peaceful transfer of power between parties in the Fourth Republic and a milestone in Ghana's democratic consolidation.
Coups, republics, and modern democracy
Sources: Ghana (country overview and history) (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Consolidating Democracy in Ghana: An Overview (Kujenga Amani (Social Science Research Council))
- RWAPolitics & Power
Kagame becomes president
Paul Kagame formally assumes the presidency and consolidates power, presiding over reconstruction and growth alongside tight control of political life.
Aftermath, Justice and Reconstruction
Sources: History of Rwanda (Wikipedia) · Massacre of the Tutsi Minority (United States Holocaust Memorial Museum)
- SENPolitics & Power
Wade defeats Diouf
Abdoulaye Wade wins the presidency from Abdou Diouf — Senegal's first transfer of power across party lines.
A Democratic Republic and the Casamance Question
Sources: Senegal — The Global State of Democracy (International IDEA) · Senegal's Democratic Evolution: Elections, Governance, and Presidential Legacies (Centre for Democracy and Development Africa)
- SLEWar & Rupture
Sierra Leone · May 2000
British intervention and UNAMSIL
As the RUF again advanced on Freetown, Britain's Operation Palliser and a strengthened UN Mission (UNAMSIL) turned the war; Foday Sankoh was captured, breaking the rebellion's momentum.
One-party rule, civil war, and recovery
Sources: British military intervention in the Sierra Leone Civil War (Operation Palliser) (Wikipedia) · Sierra Leone Civil War (Wikipedia)
- ZWEEconomy & Trade
Zimbabwe · from 2000
Fast-track land reform
The government backed often-violent seizures of white-owned commercial farms; the disruption, with drought and sanctions, helped trigger a severe economic collapse.
Independence, Gukurahundi and the Mugabe years
Sources: Zimbabwe: History (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · History of Zimbabwe (Wikipedia)
Asia
- PRKPolitics & Power
North Korea · June 2000
First inter-Korean summit
Kim Jong Il hosts South Korean president Kim Dae-jung in Pyongyang in the first summit between the two Koreas, briefly easing tensions.
Famine and the Second Succession
Sources: History of North Korea (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Kim Jong Il (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- PSEWar & Rupture
- KORPolitics & Power
South Korea · June 2000
First inter-Korean summit
President Kim Dae-jung meets North Korea's Kim Jong-il in Pyongyang under the Sunshine Policy; Kim Dae-jung receives the Nobel Peace Prize that year.
Democratization and Modern South Korea
Sources: Kim Dae-Jung (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- SYRPolitics & Power
Syria · 2000 CE
Bashar al-Assad succeeds his father
On Hafez al-Assad's death, his son Bashar becomes president; early hopes of reform give way to a continuation of the authoritarian, single-party system.
The Assad Era, the Civil War and the Fall of 2024
Sources: Bashar al-Assad (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
Europe
- RUSPolitics & Power
Vladimir Putin becomes president
After Yeltsin's resignation, Vladimir Putin wins the presidency and, aided by rising oil and gas revenues, stabilizes the economy while progressively centralizing political power and curbing independent media.
Post-Soviet Russia
Sources: Russia (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- SRBPolitics & Power
Serbia · 5 Oct 2000
Fall of Milošević
After disputed elections, mass protests in Belgrade forced Milošević from power; he was later tried at the ICTY in The Hague but died in 2006 before a verdict was reached.
The Breakup of Yugoslavia and the Kosovo War
Sources: Slobodan Milošević (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Slobodan Milošević (IT-02-54) case information (International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (UN-IRMCT))
North America
- CRIPolitics & Power
Costa Rica · 2000 CE
San Juan navigation dispute settled
Costa Rica and Nicaragua resolve a long-standing quarrel over navigation on the river that forms their border.
Peace, Welfare, and the Green Republic
Sources: Costa Rica country profile (BBC News)
- MEXPolitics & Power
Mexico · 2000 CE
End of one-party rule
Vicente Fox's election ends 71 years of uninterrupted PRI government, marking Mexico's democratic alternation of power.
Modern Mexico: The PRI Era to Today
Sources: Vicente Fox (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- PANEconomy & Trade
Panama administers the canal
The Panama Canal Authority assumes full management of the waterway, anchoring a service and logistics economy.
The Canal Nation
Sources: The Panama Canal and the Torrijos-Carter Treaties (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian) · Panama (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
South America
- ECUEconomy & Trade
Ecuador · Jan 2000
Dollarisation
Amid financial collapse President Jamil Mahuad adopts the US dollar as Ecuador's currency, abandoning the sucre; he is ousted days later but the dollar stays.
Oil, Dollar and the Modern Crisis
Sources: History of Ecuador (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · The World Bank in Ecuador: Overview (The World Bank)
Oceania
- FJIPolitics & Power
Fiji · 19 May 2000
Speight hostage crisis
Armed men led by George Speight seize parliament and hold the Chaudhry government hostage for 56 days, triggering a constitutional crisis.
Independence Tested: The Cycle of Coups
Sources: George Speight — Fijian coup leader (Encyclopædia Britannica) · Mahendra Chaudhry — prime minister of Fiji (Encyclopædia Britannica)
- SLBWar & Rupture
Solomon Islands · June 2000
The Malaita Eagle Force coup
Militants take Prime Minister Ulufa'alu hostage and force his resignation; an Australian-brokered treaty that October begins a weapons handover that does not hold.
Tensions, Recovery and Great-Power Attention
Sources: Solomon Islands profile - Timeline (BBC News)
15 records
Africa
- CPVPolitics & Power
Peaceful alternation of power
The PAICV returned to government in the 2001 elections and Pedro Pires won the presidency, confirming a pattern of peaceful, competitive transfers of power between rival parties.
A stable democracy and a global people
Sources: Background Note: Cape Verde (U.S. Department of State) · History of Cape Verde (Wikipedia)
- TCDCulture & Ideas
Chad · 19 July 2001
Discovery of Toumaï
A team led by Michel Brunet recovered the cranium of Sahelanthropus tchadensis at the Toros-Menalla (TM 266) site in the Djurab desert; the species was announced in 2002 and dated to about seven million years.
Toumaï and the Sao
Sources: Sahelanthropus tchadensis (Wikipedia) · Sahelanthropus tchadensis (Australian Museum) · Sahelanthropus tchadensis: Ten Years After the Discovery (Smithsonian Magazine)
- COMPolitics & Power
Union constitution and rotating presidency
Following the Fomboni accords, a new constitution approved by referendum creates the Union of the Comoros, giving each island autonomy and rotating the Union presidency among the three islands.
The Union and the Mayotte Question
Sources: Union of Comoros (Encyclopedia.com) · Comoros: History (Encyclopædia Britannica)
- DJIPolitics & Power
Djibouti · 12 May 2001
Final FRUD peace accord
President Guelleh presides over a final peace agreement with the hardline FRUD faction led by Ahmed Dini, formally ending the decade-long conflict.
Civil War, Guelleh and the Republic of Bases
Sources: Djiboutian Civil War (Wikipedia) · Djibouti: Peace agreement addresses Afar discontent (The New Humanitarian)
- CODPolitics & Power
DR Congo · 16 Jan 2001
Laurent Kabila assassinated
President Laurent-Désiré Kabila is shot dead in Kinshasa; his son Joseph Kabila succeeds him and seeks peace.
Africa's World War & After
Sources: Second Congo War (Wikipedia) · Kabila, Laurent-Désiré (1939–2001) (BlackPast.org)
- ERIPolitics & Power
Eritrea · since 2001
Entrenched one-party rule
Promised elections and the ratified constitution are shelved; indefinite national service and bans on independent press, parties and religion make Eritrea one of the world's most closed states.
Independence, Border War and the Closed State
Sources: Eritrea-Ethiopia Peace Deal Offers Hope for Reform (Human Rights Watch) · Eritrea: People and Society (CIA World Factbook)
- SOLPolitics & Power
Somaliland · 31 May 2001
Constitution approved by referendum
A national referendum approved Somaliland's constitution by an overwhelming margin, a vote widely interpreted as also confirming popular support for independence.
Restoration and the Building of a State
Sources: 2001 Somaliland constitutional referendum (Wikipedia) · Researching the Somaliland Legal System (GlobaLex, NYU Law)
Asia
- AFGCatastrophe
Afghanistan · March 2001
Destruction of the Bamiyan Buddhas
The Taliban dynamite the colossal sixth-century Buddhas of Bamiyan as idolatrous, destroying a unique monument of world heritage months before their own fall.
The Taliban, Intervention and Return
Sources: Cultural Landscape and Archaeological Remains of the Bamiyan Valley (UNESCO World Heritage Centre) · Bamiyan — Afghanistan, History, Buddha Statues (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- AFGWar & Rupture
Afghanistan · Oct–Dec 2001
US-led intervention topples the Taliban
After the 11 September attacks a US-led coalition and the Northern Alliance overthrow the Taliban; the Bonn Agreement of December 2001 installs Hamid Karzai's interim government.
The Taliban, Intervention and Return
Sources: NATO and Afghanistan (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) · Mohammad Omar — Biography & Facts (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- CYNPolitics & Power
The peacekeeping mandate rolls on
The Security Council renews a mission begun in 1964; some 2,400 peacekeepers patrol the buffer zone between the two communities.
A Divided Island to the Present
Sources: Cyprus country profile (BBC News) · About UNFICYP (United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus)
Europe
- KOSPolitics & Power
Constitutional Framework for self-government
UNMIK established a Constitutional Framework for Provisional Self-Government, creating an assembly, presidency and government for Kosovo while final status and ultimate authority remained with the UN administration.
War, NATO Intervention and UN Administration
Sources: UNMIK Regulation 2001/9: Constitutional Framework for Provisional Self-Government in Kosovo (Council of Europe, Venice Commission)
- MKDPolitics & Power
North Macedonia · 13 Aug 2001
The Ohrid Framework Agreement
The agreement ended the 2001 ethnic Albanian insurgency, rejecting territorial partition and granting the Albanian minority greater rights through decentralisation, equitable representation, language rights and double-majority voting.
The Ohrid Framework, NATO and the Road to Europe
Sources: Ohrid Agreement (Framework Agreement, 13 August 2001) (Peace Accords Matrix, Kroc Institute, University of Notre Dame)
North America
- SLVEconomy & Trade
Dollarisation
El Salvador retires its national currency, the colon, and adopts the US dollar as legal tender, deepening ties to the United States economy and to migrant remittances.
Postwar El Salvador and the Bukele Era
Sources: El Salvador: The postconflict era (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
South America
- ARGEconomy & Trade
Oceania
- PNGPolitics & Power
Bougainville Peace Agreement
Following a 1998 ceasefire, a peace agreement created the Autonomous Region of Bougainville and promised a future referendum on the island's political status.
Bougainville and modern Papua New Guinea
Sources: Bougainville: the conflict in focus (Conciliation Resources) · The Bougainville referendum and beyond (University of Melbourne, Laureate Program in Comparative Constitutional Law)
18 records
Africa
- AGOWar & Rupture
Angola · 22 February 2002
Death of Savimbi ends the war
Jonas Savimbi was killed in an ambush by government forces; within weeks UNITA and the MPLA signed the Luena Memorandum, ending the twenty-seven-year civil war.
The long civil war
Sources: Angolan Civil War (1975–2002) (BlackPast.org) · Angolan Civil War (Wikipedia) · The Angolan Civil War (1975–2002): A Brief History (South African History Online)
- AGOEconomy & Trade
Angola · 2002 onward
Reconstruction and the oil boom
Peace allowed Angola to rebuild on the back of surging oil revenues, driving rapid growth in the 2000s amid persistent inequality and corruption.
Peace and oil-rich modern Angola
Sources: Angola — Colonialism, Independence, Civil War (history) (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · History of Angola (Wikipedia)
- COGPolitics & Power
New constitution; Sassou Nguesso elected
A new constitution adopted in 2002 entrenched Sassou Nguesso's presidency; he won the presidential election that year and was re-elected in 2009 amid opposition complaints.
Democracy, civil war, and the return of Sassou Nguesso
Sources: Denis Sassou Nguesso (Wikipedia) · Denis Sassou-Nguesso (Encyclopædia Britannica)
- CIVWar & Rupture
Ivory Coast · 19 September 2002
Civil war divides the country
An army mutiny grew into a rebellion that split Côte d'Ivoire between a government-held south and a rebel-held north under the Forces Nouvelles, drawing in French and UN peacekeepers.
Ivoirité, civil war, and recovery
Sources: History of Ivory Coast (Wikipedia) · Côte d'Ivoire Post-Gbagbo: Crisis Recovery (Congressional Research Service) · 2010–2011 Ivorian crisis (Wikipedia)
- KENPolitics & Power
Kibaki ends KANU rule
Mwai Kibaki wins the presidency, ending nearly four decades of unbroken KANU government since independence.
The Republic of Kenya
Sources: Mwai Kibaki (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · History of Kenya (Wikipedia)
- MDGPolitics & Power
Ravalomanana and the 2002 crisis
A disputed election triggers months of confrontation; Marc Ravalomanana takes power and Ratsiraka flees.
Independence & the Republics
Sources: Marc Ravalomanana (Encyclopædia Britannica) · Madagascar Timeline: Madagascar's turbulent political history (ReliefWeb / IRIN)
- RWAPolitics & Power
Rwanda · 2002–2012
The gacaca community courts
Rwanda revives the traditional gacaca courts to try genocide cases locally; by their closure in June 2012 they have heard more than 1.9 million cases.
Aftermath, Justice and Reconstruction
Sources: Gacaca court (Encyclopædia Britannica) · Justice after genocide: Rwanda's journey toward accountability and healing (Marquette University)
- SLEWar & Rupture
Sierra Leone · 18 January 2002
The civil war ends
With disarmament completed, the eleven-year civil war was declared over; estimates put the death toll above 120,000, with millions displaced and thousands maimed.
One-party rule, civil war, and recovery
Sources: The Sierra Leone Civil War (1991–2002) (BlackPast.org) · Sierra Leone Civil War (Wikipedia)
Asia
- OMNPolitics & Power
Oman · 22 June 2002
Oman and the UAE sign their border agreement
Oman and the United Arab Emirates signed in Abu Dhabi the Border Agreement on the borders from Eastern Uqaidat to Darah. Oman ratified it by Royal Decree 10/2003 on 27 January 2003, and the two states exchanged the instruments of ratification on 11 October 2003.
The Renaissance of Qaboos and Modern Oman
Sources: Royal Decree 10/2003 ratifying the Oman-UAE border agreement (Oman Royal Decrees) · Oman, UAE ratify border agreement (Khaleej Times)
- TLSFormation
Timor-Leste · 20 May 2002
Restoration of independence
UNTAET hands over sovereignty; Timor-Leste restores its independence with Xanana Gusmao as first president and soon joins the United Nations.
The Referendum and UN Transitional Administration
Sources: A Guide to the United States' History of Recognition, Diplomatic, and Consular Relations: Timor-Leste (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian) · UNTAET Background (United Nations Peacekeeping)
- AREPolitics & Power
United Arab Emirates · 22 June 2002
Oman and the UAE sign their border agreement
Oman and the United Arab Emirates signed in Abu Dhabi the Border Agreement on the borders from Eastern Uqaidat to Darah. Oman ratified it by Royal Decree 10/2003 on 27 January 2003, and the two states exchanged the instruments of ratification on 11 October 2003.
Oil Wealth and the Global Federation
Sources: Royal Decree 10/2003 ratifying the Oman-UAE border agreement (Oman Royal Decrees) · Oman, UAE ratify border agreement (Khaleej Times)
Europe
- FRAEconomy & Trade
The euro in French Guiana
French Guiana, a département of France, uses the euro; the Banque de France’s subsidiary IEDOM acts as its central-bank delegate in overseas territories whose currency is the euro.
The Republics & the Modern Nation
Sources: Institut d’émission des départements d’outre-mer (IEDOM (Banque de France))
- MCOIndependence
Monaco · 24 October 2002
Treaty of 2002 guarantees independence
A new Franco-Monégasque treaty, with the revised constitution and succession law, ended the clause returning Monaco to France if the Grimaldi line failed, guaranteeing the principality's continued independence.
Sovereignty Tied to France and the Making of the Modern Principality
Sources: Albert II, prince of Monaco (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · The history of Monaco's accession (Permanent Representation of Monaco to the Council of Europe (gouv.mc)) · Monaco: 1815 to Present (GlobalSecurity.org)
- MNEEconomy & Trade
Unilateral adoption of the euro
Montenegro made the euro its sole legal tender from March 2002, a unilateral euroisation undertaken without European Central Bank agreement that distanced its economy from Serbia's.
Rump Yugoslavia, the State Union and the Road to the 2006 Referendum
Sources: Euroisation: Montenegro's adoption of the Deutsche Mark and then the euro (sole legal tender from March 2002) (Central Bank of Montenegro (Centralna banka Crne Gore))
- CHEPolitics & Power
Switzerland · 3 Mar 2002
Switzerland joins the United Nations
After rejecting membership in 1986, Swiss voters narrowly approved joining the UN in a referendum on 3 March 2002, and Switzerland became the 190th member state that September, while still standing outside the European Union.
Neutral Switzerland: World Wars, Sovereignty and the Modern Confederation
Sources: When Switzerland joined the United Nations (SWI swissinfo.ch (Swiss Broadcasting Corporation)) · The History of Switzerland (Federal Department of Foreign Affairs (aboutswitzerland.eda.admin.ch))
- GBRPolitics & Power
United Kingdom · 7 Nov 2002
Gibraltar rejects shared sovereignty
In a referendum called by the Gibraltar Government, voters rejected a proposal for British–Spanish joint sovereignty by 17,900 votes to 187.
World wars, decolonisation, and the modern UK
Sources: 2002 Gibraltar sovereignty referendum (Wikipedia)
South America
- SURCulture & Ideas
Paramaribo named World Heritage
UNESCO inscribes the Historic Inner City of Paramaribo, a Dutch colonial town blending European and local building traditions.
Democracy, Diversity, and Oil
Sources: Historic Inner City of Paramaribo (UNESCO World Heritage Centre)
Oceania
- SLBCatastrophe
Solomon Islands · December 2002
Cyclone Zoe strikes Tikopia
A cyclone devastates the remote islands of Tikopia and Anuta; a relief vessel sails expecting mass casualties and finds nobody killed.
Tensions, Recovery and Great-Power Attention
Sources: Solomon Islands profile - Timeline (BBC News)
18 records
Africa
- BDIWar & Rupture
CNDD-FDD joins the peace process
The main rebel movement, the CNDD-FDD, agrees to the peace process and ceasefires; the war winds down toward the 2005 transition.
Democracy, Assassination and Civil War
Sources: History of Burundi (Wikipedia) · Burundi: Why the Arusha Accords are Central (Africa Center for Strategic Studies)
- CAFPolitics & Power
Central African Republic · 15 March 2003
Bozizé seizes power
After coups by André Kolingba (1981) and an elected interlude under Ange-Félix Patassé, army chief François Bozizé overthrew Patassé, continuing the cycle of armed takeovers.
Bokassa and the Age of Coups
Sources: History of the Central African Republic (Kiddle Encyclopedia) · Central African Republic — History (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- CODPolitics & Power
Peace agreements end the war
The 2002 Sun City and Pretoria accords and a transitional government formally end the Second Congo War in 2003.
Africa's World War & After
Sources: Second Congo War (Wikipedia)
- GMBCulture & Ideas
Gambia · 2003 / 2011
Kunta Kinteh Island recognised
James Island and Related Sites were inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2003 as a memorial to the slave trade; the island was renamed Kunta Kinteh Island in 2011, recalling the figure in Alex Haley's Roots associated with nearby Juffure.
The river, European trade and the Atlantic slave trade
Sources: Kunta Kinteh Island and Related Sites (UNESCO World Heritage Centre) · Kunta Kinteh Island (Wikipedia)
- LBRWar & Rupture
Liberia · August 2003
Taylor resigns; Accra peace agreement
With rebels besieging Monrovia and an international indictment over Sierra Leone hanging over him, Charles Taylor resigned and went into exile; a comprehensive peace agreement in Accra ended the war and a UN mission, UNMIL, deployed.
The civil wars and Charles Taylor
Sources: Second Liberian Civil War (1999–2003) (BlackPast.org) · Charles Taylor (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Second Liberian Civil War (Wikipedia)
- STPPolitics & Power
São Tomé and Príncipe · July 2003
Short-lived military coup
Soldiers briefly seized power over corruption and oil-revenue grievances; President Fradique de Menezes was restored within days through negotiation.
One-party state, democracy and the modern republic
Sources: São Tomé and Príncipe (Wikipedia) · São Tomé and Príncipe — After independence (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- SDNWar & Rupture
Sudan · February 2003
War in Darfur begins
Rebel attacks meet a government-backed Janjaweed campaign; UN estimates put the toll at about 300,000 dead and some three million displaced.
Darfur, Secession and the War of the Generals
Sources: War in Darfur (Wikipedia)
Asia
- AZEPolitics & Power
Ilham Aliyev succeeds his father
On the death of the gravely ill Heydar Aliyev, his son Ilham Aliyev became president, continuing a family-led order built on Caspian oil and gas wealth.
Independence, the Aliyev era and Karabakh
Sources: Ilham Aliyev, president of Azerbaijan (Encyclopædia Britannica) · Heydar Aliyev, president of Azerbaijan (Encyclopædia Britannica)
- GEOPolitics & Power
Georgia · Nov 2003
The Rose Revolution
Peaceful mass protests over disputed elections, in which demonstrators carried roses, forced the resignation of President Shevardnadze and brought the reformer Mikheil Saakashvili to power.
Independent Georgia: Conflicts, the Rose Revolution and the Western Turn
Sources: Georgia: Independent Georgia (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- IRQWar & Rupture
Iraq · March–April 2003
US-led invasion topples Saddam Hussein
A United States-led coalition invades Iraq and overthrows Saddam Hussein's government within weeks; Saddam is captured in December 2003 and later executed in 2006.
Iraq Since 2003 — Invasion, Insurgency and Recovery
Sources: Iraq War (Encyclopædia Britannica) · Iraq — Iraq under Saddam Hussein (Encyclopædia Britannica)
- CYNPolitics & Power
Northern Cyprus · April 2003
Crossing points open along the Green Line
For the first time in decades, crossing points in the UN buffer zone were opened, allowing movement between north and south and easing the communities' separation without settling the dispute.
A Divided Island to the Present
Sources: Cyprus - History (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · About UNFICYP (United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus)
Europe
- LIEPolitics & Power
Constitutional referendum expands the prince's powers
Voters approved Prince Hans-Adam II's constitutional revision, enlarging the reigning prince's powers including a veto over legislation and the right to dismiss the government, after he threatened to leave the country.
A Wealthy Microstate: Finance, the ICJ Case and the Modern Constitution
Sources: Hans-Adam II, prince of Liechtenstein (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Liechtenstein: History (Alpine, Principality, Sovereignty) (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- MNEPolitics & Power
State Union of Serbia and Montenegro
European mediation transformed the federation into the loose State Union of Serbia and Montenegro, whose Constitutional Charter allowed either republic to hold an independence referendum after three years.
Rump Yugoslavia, the State Union and the Road to the 2006 Referendum
Sources: Consequences of the referendum in Montenegro (Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly) · Montenegro: History (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
North America
- PRIPolitics & Power
Puerto Rico · 1 May 2003
U.S. Navy leaves Vieques
After years of civil disobedience following a 1999 death, the Navy ends weapons testing and withdraws from Vieques.
Vieques, Maria, and the Unresolved Future
Sources: Puerto Rico: The Debate over Political Status (Encyclopædia Britannica)
South America
- BRAPolitics & Power
Brazil · 2003-2010
Lula and social inclusion
Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva's governments expand social programmes during a commodities boom, lifting millions out of poverty.
Modern Democratic Brazil
Sources: Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- PERPolitics & Power
Peru · 28 Aug 2003
Truth and Reconciliation Commission report
The Commission estimates that some 69,000 people died or disappeared in the 1980-2000 conflict, attributing most deaths to the Shining Path while also documenting state abuses.
Reform, the Shining Path, and Modern Peru
Sources: Shining Path (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Peru: History (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
Oceania
- SLBPolitics & Power
Solomon Islands · August 2003
Harold Keke surrenders
The Isatabu Freedom Movement leader gives himself up to Australian forces and is charged with the murder of the priest and MP Augustine Geve.
Tensions, Recovery and Great-Power Attention
Sources: Solomon Islands profile - Timeline (BBC News)
- SLBPolitics & Power
Solomon Islands · 2003–2017
RAMSI intervention
At the government's request, Australia leads a multinational mission that restores order, disarms militias and rebuilds institutions until 2017.
Tensions, Recovery and Great-Power Attention
Sources: Australian peacekeepers in Solomon Islands, 2000–2017 (Australian Government (Anzac Portal, Dept of Veterans' Affairs))
27 records
Africa
- CPVCulture & Ideas
Cesária Évora and morna go global
Cesária Évora, the "barefoot diva", won a Grammy for the album Voz d'Amor, the high point of a career that carried Cape Verdean morna and its Creole longing to audiences worldwide.
A stable democracy and a global people
Sources: Cesária Évora (Wikipedia) · The story of morna: Cape Verde's music of displacement and return (Al Jazeera)
- GNQPolitics & Power
Equatorial Guinea · March 2004
The "Wonga Coup" foiled
An attempted coup by a group of foreign mercenaries — the so-called Wonga Coup, linked to Simon Mann — was foiled in 2004, underscoring the instability around oil-rich Equatorial Guinea.
Obiang, oil, and inequality
Sources: History of Equatorial Guinea (Wikipedia) · Equatorial Guinea (Encyclopædia Britannica)
Asia
- CYPPolitics & Power
Cyprus · 1 May 2004
Accession to the European Union
The Republic of Cyprus joined the EU; the whole island is EU territory, but the application of EU law is suspended in the northern areas not under the government's effective control.
The 1974 Division, the TRNC and the European Union
Sources: Cyprus (EU country profile) (European Union (european-union.europa.eu))
- CYPPolitics & Power
Cyprus · 24 Apr 2004
The Annan Plan referendums
A UN reunification plan was put to simultaneous referendums; Turkish Cypriots approved it but about three-quarters of Greek Cypriots voting rejected it, leaving the island divided on the eve of EU membership.
The 1974 Division, the TRNC and the European Union
Sources: Cyprus profile – Timeline (BBC News) · Cyprus (EU country profile) (European Union (european-union.europa.eu))
- IDNPolitics & Power
First direct presidential election
Indonesians directly elect their president for the first time, consolidating one of the world's largest democracies after the authoritarian New Order.
Sukarno, the New Order and Democratic Indonesia
Sources: Indonesia (toward independence; Japanese occupation; after Suharto) (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- CYNPolitics & Power
Northern Cyprus · 24 April 2004
Annan Plan referendums fail
The UN reunification plan was approved by a majority of Turkish Cypriots but rejected by a large majority of Greek Cypriots in simultaneous referendums, so it was not implemented.
A Divided Island to the Present
Sources: Cyprus - History (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- CYNPolitics & Power
Northern Cyprus · 1 May 2004
Republic of Cyprus joins the European Union
Cyprus acceded to the EU as a divided island; EU law applies in full only in the south and is suspended in the north pending a political settlement.
A Divided Island to the Present
Sources: Cyprus - History (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- LKACatastrophe
Sri Lanka · 26 Dec 2004
Indian Ocean tsunami
Waves from a magnitude-9.1 undersea earthquake off Sumatra devastate Sri Lanka's coasts, killing more than 30,000 people in the country's deadliest natural disaster.
Republic, Civil War and the Modern Nation
Sources: Indian Ocean tsunami of 2004 (Encyclopædia Britannica)
Europe
- ANDCulture & Ideas
Madriu-Perafita-Claror Valley inscribed by UNESCO
Andorra's only World Heritage Site, the Madriu-Perafita-Claror Valley, was inscribed as a cultural landscape, recognised for its high-Pyrenean pastoralism and a communal land-ownership system surviving from the 13th century.
A Sovereign Democracy in the Heart of Europe
Sources: Madriu-Perafita-Claror Valley (UNESCO World Heritage Centre)
- BGRPolitics & Power
Bulgaria · 29 Mar 2004
Accession to NATO
Bulgaria became a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation in the alliance's largest wave of enlargement, anchoring the country in the Euro-Atlantic security community.
Communism, 1989 and the Return to Europe
Sources: Enlargement and Article 10 (Bulgaria, 2004) (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO)) · About Bulgaria: History (Council of Ministers of the Republic of Bulgaria (gov.bg))
- ESTPolitics & Power
Estonia · 29 Mar 2004
Accession to NATO
Estonia became a full member of NATO when its instruments of accession were deposited in Washington, anchoring its security in the Western alliance.
The Singing Revolution, Restoration and the Return to Europe
Sources: Timeline of Estonia's accession to NATO (Estonian Ministry of Foreign Affairs / Estonia in NATO (nato.mfa.ee))
- ESTPolitics & Power
Estonia · 1 May 2004
Accession to the European Union
Estonia joined the European Union, completing its post-Soviet return to Europe after a 2003 referendum in which two-thirds of voters approved membership.
The Singing Revolution, Restoration and the Return to Europe
Sources: Estonia and the European Union: Timeline of Relations (Estonian Ministry of Foreign Affairs / Estonia in EU (eu.mfa.ee))
- HUNPolitics & Power
Hungary · 1 May 2004
Accession to NATO and the European Union
Having joined NATO on 12 March 1999, Hungary acceded to the European Union on 1 May 2004 in the bloc's largest single enlargement, completing its return to the West.
Communism, 1956 and the Return to Europe
Sources: NATO member countries (Hungary, 12 March 1999) (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) · EU enlargement: Hungary joined on 1 May 2004 (European Union (european-union.europa.eu))
- LVAPolitics & Power
Latvia · 29 Mar & 1 May 2004
Accession to NATO and the European Union
Latvia became a member of NATO on 29 March 2004 and of the European Union on 1 May 2004, anchoring the restored state firmly within Western institutions.
Soviet Rule, Restoration and the Return to Europe
Sources: Latvia and NATO (Ministry of Defence of the Republic of Latvia) · Latvia: History (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- LTUPolitics & Power
Lithuania · 29 Mar 2004
Accession to NATO
Lithuania formally joined NATO on 29 March 2004, anchoring its security in the Atlantic alliance a little over a decade after the withdrawal of Soviet forces.
Restoration of Independence and a European Lithuania
Sources: Chronology of Events: Lithuania and NATO (Permanent Delegation of the Republic of Lithuania to NATO (nato.mfa.lt))
- LTUPolitics & Power
Lithuania · 1 May 2004
Accession to the European Union
Lithuania joined the European Union on 1 May 2004 and adopted the euro in 2015, completing its return to the institutions of the West.
Restoration of Independence and a European Lithuania
Sources: Lithuania (EU member country profile) (European Union (european-union.europa.eu))
- MLTPolitics & Power
Malta · 1 May 2004
Accession to the European Union
Malta joined the European Union on 1 May 2004 in its largest enlargement and adopted the euro on 1 January 2008, completing its integration into Europe.
The George Cross Island and the European Republic
Sources: Malta — EU country profile (European Union)
- POLPolitics & Power
Poland · 1 May 2004
Accession to the European Union
Poland joined the European Union, completing its return to the West after the fall of communism and accelerating its economic and political integration into Europe.
Communist Poland, Solidarity and the Modern Republic
Sources: Poland in the EU (Government of Poland (gov.pl))
- ROUPolitics & Power
Romania · 29 Mar 2004
Romania joins NATO
Romania formally joined NATO on 29 March 2004, depositing its instrument of accession in Washington alongside six other new members in the alliance's largest round of enlargement.
Revolution, democracy and the European turn
Sources: Seven new members join NATO, 29 March 2004 (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)
- SVKPolitics & Power
Slovakia · 1 May 2004
Accession to the European Union
Slovakia joined the European Union on 1 May 2004, completing its integration into Western Europe little more than a decade after independence.
Independent Slovakia in Europe
Sources: U.S. Relations With Slovakia (U.S. Department of State) · Slovakia and the euro (European Commission (Economy and Finance))
- SVKPolitics & Power
Slovakia · 29 Mar 2004
Slovakia joins NATO
Slovakia officially became a member of NATO on 29 March 2004, part of the largest single enlargement in the Alliance's history, anchoring the young republic in the Western security community.
Independent Slovakia in Europe
Sources: Slovakia and NATO enlargement (2004 invitees) (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)
- SVNPolitics & Power
Slovenia · 1 May 2004
Accession to the European Union
Slovenia joined the European Union on 1 May 2004 in the bloc's largest enlargement, the only former Yugoslav republic to accede in that wave.
A European Republic and the Border Arbitration
Sources: Slovenia – EU country (European Union (european-union.europa.eu))
- SVNPolitics & Power
Slovenia · 29 Mar 2004
Slovenia joins NATO
After a 2003 referendum approved by some two-thirds of voters, Slovenia became a member of NATO on 29 March 2004, anchoring its security in the Western alliance.
A European Republic and the Border Arbitration
Sources: Slovenia's NATO membership (Government of Slovenia (gov.si)) · Slovenia – EU country (European Union (european-union.europa.eu))
- UKRPolitics & Power
The Orange Revolution
Mass protests against a fraudulent presidential election forced a court-ordered re-run that brought the pro-Western Viktor Yushchenko to the presidency over Viktor Yanukovych.
Independent Ukraine, Revolutions and the Defence of Sovereignty
Sources: Orange Revolution (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
North America
- DOMEconomy & Trade
Dominican Republic · 2004 CE
Tourism-led growth takes off
The Dominican Republic emerges as the Caribbean's leading tourist destination, with Punta Cana's resorts and Santo Domingo's colonial city anchoring a fast-growing services economy.
The Modern Tourism Republic
Sources: Dominican Republic Overview (The World Bank) · History of the Dominican Republic (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- HTIPolitics & Power
Haiti · 2004 CE
Aristide leaves again; the UN deploys
An armed rebellion drives Aristide from the country a second time; US Marines land and a UN stabilisation force takes over, staying until 2019.
Democracy, Disaster, and Collapse
Sources: Haiti country profile (BBC News)
South America
- URYPolitics & Power
Uruguay · 2004 CE
Frente Amplio breaks the duopoly
The left-wing Frente Amplio coalition wins the presidency for the first time, ending nearly two centuries of Colorado and Blanco dominance.
Dictatorship, Recovery, and Modern Uruguay
Sources: Uruguay (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Jose Mujica (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
16 records
Africa
- BDIPolitics & Power
CNDD-FDD wins power; Nkurunziza president
Following the Arusha settlement, the former rebel CNDD-FDD wins the 2005 elections and Pierre Nkurunziza becomes president.
Modern Burundi
Sources: Pierre Nkurunziza (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · History of Burundi (Wikipedia)
- LBRPolitics & Power
Liberia · November 2005
Ellen Johnson Sirleaf elected
Ellen Johnson Sirleaf won the presidential run-off against George Weah and was inaugurated in January 2006 as the first woman elected to lead an African nation.
Peace, Sirleaf, and the Ebola epidemic
Sources: Ellen Johnson Sirleaf (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Ellen Johnson Sirleaf — Biographical (The Nobel Prize)
- MRTPolitics & Power
Mauritania · August 2005
Coup ends the Taya era
A military council overthrows President Ould Taya, beginning a period of transition punctuated by a further coup in 2008.
Coups, Withdrawal and the Modern State
Sources: Mauritania (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- NAMPolitics & Power
First peaceful transfer of power
Sam Nujoma stepped down after fifteen years and was succeeded as president by Hifikepunye Pohamba, the first of several peaceful handovers within SWAPO governments.
Independent Namibia since 1990
Sources: Namibia (Wikipedia) · Namibia (country, history and government) (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- SDSPolitics & Power
South Sudan · 9 Jan 2005
Comprehensive Peace Agreement signed
Khartoum and the SPLM/SPLA sign the CPA, ending the second war and providing for southern autonomy and a self-determination referendum within six years.
Peace, Referendum and a New State
Sources: South Sudan: The 2005 Comprehensive Peace Agreement, Conflict, Independence (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Ten Years Later: Taking Stock of Sudan's Comprehensive Peace Agreement (Council on Foreign Relations)
- SDSPolitics & Power
South Sudan · Jul 2005
Death of John Garang
Weeks after becoming Sudan's first vice-president, John Garang dies in a helicopter crash; Salva Kiir Mayardit succeeds him as SPLM leader and southern president.
Peace, Referendum and a New State
Sources: South Sudan: The 2005 Comprehensive Peace Agreement, Conflict, Independence (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Ten Years Later: Taking Stock of Sudan's Comprehensive Peace Agreement (Council on Foreign Relations)
- SDNPolitics & Power
Comprehensive Peace Agreement
The 2005 accord ends the second civil war, grants the south autonomy, and promises a referendum on independence.
Independence and the Long Civil Wars
Sources: Sudanese Civil Wars (Encyclopedia.com) · Sudan (Wikipedia)
- TGOPolitics & Power
Togo · 5 February 2005
Death of Eyadéma and dynastic succession
Eyadéma died after nearly 38 years in power, then Africa's longest-serving ruler; the army installed his son Faure Gnassingbé, prompting an international outcry over the unconstitutional handover.
The Eyadéma era and the Gnassingbé dynasty
Sources: Gnassingbé Eyadéma (Wikipedia) · Faure Gnassingbé (Wikipedia)
- TGOPolitics & Power
Togo · April 2005
Faure Gnassingbé elected amid violence
After ECOWAS pressure forced him to step down, Faure Gnassingbé won a disputed election; the contested result was followed by violence that UN estimates put at hundreds of deaths.
The Eyadéma era and the Gnassingbé dynasty
Sources: Faure Gnassingbé (Wikipedia) · Togo (country overview and history) (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- UGAPolitics & Power
Term limits removed
Parliament removes presidential term limits from the constitution, and Uganda returns to multiparty politics; Museveni's tenure lengthens into one of Africa's longest.
The Bush War, Museveni and the Northern Insurgency
Sources: Yoweri Museveni (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Uganda: Bill Eliminating Presidential Age Limit (U.S. Library of Congress, Global Legal Monitor)
Asia
- IRQPolitics & Power
New constitution and sectarian war
Iraq adopts a federal, power-sharing constitution, but a Sunni-led insurgency and, after the 2006 al-Askari shrine bombing, brutal Shiʿi–Sunni sectarian violence engulf the country.
Iraq Since 2003 — Invasion, Insurgency and Recovery
Sources: Iraq War (Encyclopædia Britannica) · Iraq — The Republic of Iraq (Encyclopædia Britannica)
- KGZPolitics & Power
Kyrgyzstan · Mar 2005
The Tulip Revolution
Allegations of fraud in the parliamentary elections and of pervasive corruption sparked mass demonstrations that forced President Akayev to flee the country, in the first of Kyrgyzstan's post-Soviet revolutions.
Independence and the Akayev Years
Sources: Tulip Revolution (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Kyrgyzstan: History (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- LBNPolitics & Power
Lebanon · 14 February 2005
Hariri assassination and the Cedar Revolution
A car bomb kills former prime minister Rafic Hariri and others; mass protests known as the Cedar Revolution lead Syria to withdraw its forces after nearly thirty years.
Civil War, Foreign Intervention and Collapse
Sources: Rafiq al-Hariri (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Iraq and World Order: A Lebanese Perspective (United Nations University Press) · Lebanon: Lebanon's Second Republic since 1990 (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- UZBPolitics & Power
Uzbekistan · May 2005
The Andijan events
Government forces open fire on protesters in the city of Andijan; rights groups estimate that hundreds of civilians were killed, drawing international condemnation of Karimov's rule.
Independent Uzbekistan
Sources: Islam Karimov — Central Asian leader (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
Europe
- LIEPolitics & Power
Liechtenstein · 10 Feb 2005
ICJ judgment in Liechtenstein v. Germany
In Certain Property (Liechtenstein v. Germany), brought to the International Court of Justice in 2001 over a confiscated van Laer painting, the Court ruled on 10 February 2005 that it had no jurisdiction, locating the dispute's source in the 1945 Beneš-era confiscations.
A Wealthy Microstate: Finance, the ICJ Case and the Modern Constitution
Sources: Certain Property (Liechtenstein v. Germany) — case overview (International Court of Justice) · Summary of the Judgment of 10 February 2005, Certain Property (Liechtenstein v. Germany) (International Court of Justice) · Certain Property (Liechtenstein v. Germany) — Preliminary Objections: the Court finds it has no jurisdiction (International Court of Justice)
- MKDPolitics & Power
North Macedonia · Dec 2005
EU candidate status
Having applied for membership in 2004, the country was granted European Union candidate status in December 2005, opening a long road toward accession.
The Ohrid Framework, NATO and the Road to Europe
Sources: Republic of North Macedonia (EU enlargement policy) (Council of the European Union)
11 records
Africa
- SOMWar & Rupture
Islamic Courts Union and the rise of Al-Shabaab
The Islamic Courts Union briefly controls much of the south before an Ethiopian intervention ousts it; from its militant wing emerges Al-Shabaab, which launches a prolonged jihadist insurgency.
State Collapse, Civil War and the Federal Republic
Sources: Al Shabaab (CRS In Focus) (U.S. Library of Congress / Congressional Research Service) · AMISOM – Background of Conflict (Peacekeeping and Stability Operations Institute (PKSOI))
- UGAWar & Rupture
Uganda · c. 2006
LRA driven from Uganda
After nearly two decades that displaced almost two million people and saw tens of thousands of children abducted, the Lord's Resistance Army is pushed out of northern Uganda.
The Bush War, Museveni and the Northern Insurgency
Sources: Q&A on Joseph Kony and the Lord's Resistance Army (Human Rights Watch) · Lord's Resistance Army insurgency (Wikipedia)
Asia
- KWTPolitics & Power
Sheikh Sabah Al-Ahmad becomes emir
The veteran foreign minister Sheikh Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Sabah acceded as emir, a reign noted for diplomacy and humanitarian engagement until his death in 2020.
Reconstruction and Modern Kuwait
Sources: Kuwait's Emir, Sheikh Sabah al-Ahmad al-Sabah, Has Died (Carnegie Endowment for International Peace) · Kuwait: History (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- PRKPolitics & Power
North Korea · 9 October 2006
First nuclear test
North Korea conducts its first underground nuclear test, having withdrawn from the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in 2003 and cycled through failed negotiations.
Famine and the Second Succession
Sources: Chronology of U.S.-North Korean Nuclear and Missile Diplomacy, 1985-2022 (Arms Control Association) · North Korea's Nuclear Weapons and Missile Programs (U.S. Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress)
- THAPolitics & Power
Thailand · 19 September 2006
Coup against Thaksin Shinawatra
The military ousts populist Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra while he is abroad, opening nearly two decades of conflict between his movement and the establishment.
Cold War Ally, Coups, and the Modern Kingdom
Sources: Bhumibol Adulyadej (Rama IX) (Encyclopædia Britannica) · Thailand (Encyclopædia Britannica)
- TLSPolitics & Power
The 2006 crisis
The dismissal of disaffected soldiers triggers fighting in Dili that kills dozens and displaces tens of thousands, topples the prime minister, and brings back international peacekeepers.
Asia's Youngest Nation
Sources: East Timor (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
Europe
- MNEIndependence
Montenegro · 21 May 2006
Independence referendum
On a turnout above 86 percent, 55.5 percent of voters chose independence, narrowly passing the EU-set 55 percent threshold; the OSCE/ODIHR found the vote met international standards.
Rump Yugoslavia, the State Union and the Road to the 2006 Referendum
Sources: Consequences of the referendum in Montenegro (Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly) · Republic of Montenegro Referendum, 21 May 2006: ODIHR assessment (OSCE Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights) · Montenegro: Independence (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- MNEIndependence
Montenegro · 3 Jun 2006
Restoration of independence
The parliament in Podgorica formally declared Montenegro an independent sovereign state, recognised by Serbia, restoring the statehood lost at the Podgorica Assembly of 1918.
Rump Yugoslavia, the State Union and the Road to the 2006 Referendum
Sources: Consequences of the referendum in Montenegro (Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly) · Montenegro: Independence (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- SRBIndependence
Serbia · Jun 2006
Montenegro's independence and the end of the State Union
Following a referendum on 21 May 2006, Montenegro declared independence; Serbia accepted the result and declared itself the successor state, dissolving the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro.
Modern Serbia and the Kosovo Dispute
Sources: Montenegro: Independence (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · A Guide to the United States' History of Recognition, Diplomatic, and Consular Relations, by Country: Serbia (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian)
South America
- BOLPolitics & Power
Bolivia · Jan 2006
Evo Morales takes office
Evo Morales, leader of the MAS, becomes Bolivia's first indigenous president, beginning an era of indigenous-majority politics and hydrocarbon nationalisation.
Democracy and the Indigenous-Majority Era
Sources: Evo Morales (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · A Guide to the United States' History of Recognition, Diplomatic, and Consular Relations, by Country: Bolivia (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian)
Oceania
- FJIPolitics & Power
Fiji · 5 December 2006
Bainimarama's coup
Commodore Frank Bainimarama overthrows the Qarase government in Fiji's fourth coup, beginning an extended period of military-led rule.
Independence Tested: The Cycle of Coups
Sources: Frank Bainimarama — Biography & Facts (Encyclopædia Britannica) · Laisenia Qarase — prime minister of Fiji (Encyclopædia Britannica)
24 records
Africa
- AGOEconomy & Trade
Angola joins OPEC
Angola became a member of OPEC, underscoring its standing as one of Africa's leading oil producers and the centrality of crude oil to its economy.
Peace and oil-rich modern Angola
Sources: History of Angola (Wikipedia) · Beyond Mugabe: Angola's Strongman Also Bowed Out in 2017 (The Globalist)
- CPVEconomy & Trade
Graduation from least-developed status
Buoyed by tourism, remittances and stable governance, Cape Verde graduated from the UN list of least-developed countries — a rare achievement for an African state — confirming its development progress.
A stable democracy and a global people
Sources: History of Cape Verde (Wikipedia) · Cabo Verde — Country Overview (World Bank Group)
- GNBEconomy & Trade
Guinea-Bissau · mid-2000s onward
A cocaine transit "narco-state"
Weak institutions, porous borders and an archipelago of uninhabited islands made Guinea-Bissau a major transit point for Latin American cocaine bound for Europe; the UN described it as the first African "narco-state", with the drug trade rivalling the legal economy.
Instability, civil war and the cocaine route
Sources: West Africa under attack from narco-trafficking (UN Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC)) · Guinea-Bissau's illegal drug economy (Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime) · Cocaine and Guinea-Bissau: How Africa's 'narco-state' is trying to kick its habit (BBC News)
- CIVPolitics & Power
Ouagadougou Political Agreement
A peace accord brokered through regional mediation brought rebel leader Guillaume Soro into a unity government and set a path toward reunification and elections, easing the first civil war.
Ivoirité, civil war, and recovery
Sources: Côte d'Ivoire Post-Gbagbo: Crisis Recovery (Congressional Research Service) · History of Ivory Coast (Wikipedia)
- KENCatastrophe
Kenya · 2007–2008
Post-election violence
Kibaki's disputed re-election sparks ethnic and political violence that kills more than 1,100 people; a power-sharing deal brokered by Kofi Annan is signed on 28 February 2008.
The Republic of Kenya
Sources: Turning Pebbles: Post-Election Violence in Kenya (Human Rights Watch) · History of Kenya (Wikipedia)
- MDGCulture & Ideas
Rainforests of the Atsinanana inscribed
Six eastern national parks — home to species found nowhere else after 60 million years of isolation — join the World Heritage List.
Independence & the Republics
Sources: Rainforests of the Atsinanana (World Heritage List) (UNESCO World Heritage Centre)
- MRTPolitics & Power
Slavery criminalised
A law makes slavery a criminal offence; the constitution later recognises it as a crime against humanity in 2012, although rights groups report that descent-based slavery has persisted in practice.
Coups, Withdrawal and the Modern State
Sources: Descent-based slavery in Mauritania (Anti-Slavery International) · Enforcing Mauritania's Anti-Slavery Legislation (Minority Rights Group)
- NERWar & Rupture
Niger · 2007–2009
Second Tuareg rebellion
The Niger Movement for Justice (MNJ) launched a new insurgency, attacking the army and the uranium-mining zone around Agadez and Arlit, before a settlement was reached in 2009.
Democracy, Tuareg rebellions and the cycle of coups
Sources: Tuareg rebellion (2007–2009) (Wikipedia) · Tuareg in Niger (Minority Rights Group)
Asia
- BTNPeoples & Migration
Bhutan · 2007–2008
Resettlement of Bhutanese refugees
A multinational programme led by UNHCR and IOM resettles over 100,000 Bhutanese refugees from Nepal to countries including the United States, Canada, Australia and Europe.
Democracy and the Modern Kingdom
Sources: Resettlement of Bhutan Refugees from Nepal Passes 75,000 (International Organization for Migration (IOM)) · Resettlement of Bhutanese refugees surpasses 100,000 mark (UNHCR — UN Refugee Agency)
- BTNPolitics & Power
The treaty with India revised
A new agreement gives Bhutan more say over its own foreign and defence policy, loosening a constraint carried from 1910 through 1949.
Democracy and the Modern Kingdom
Sources: Bhutan country profile (BBC News)
- MMRReligion
Myanmar · 2007 CE
The Saffron Revolution
Buddhist monks lead mass protests against the regime that are violently suppressed, drawing renewed international condemnation.
Independence, Ne Win, and Decades of Military Rule
Sources: Myanmar since 1988 (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- PAKPolitics & Power
Pakistan · 27 Dec 2007
Assassination of Benazir Bhutto
Former prime minister Benazir Bhutto is assassinated at a rally weeks before national elections, after which civilian democratic rule is restored in 2008.
Bangladesh, Military Rule and the Modern Republic
Sources: Zulfikar Ali Bhutto (Encyclopædia Britannica)
- PSEPolitics & Power
Blockade of the Gaza Strip
After Hamas took control of Gaza, Israel and Egypt imposed a blockade restricting the movement of people and goods, with severe humanitarian consequences.
Occupation, Dispossession, and the Present
Sources: Gaza Strip - Blockade (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Blockade of the Gaza Strip (Wikipedia)
- TKMPolitics & Power
Turkmenistan · February 2007
Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow elected
Following Niyazov's death in December 2006, Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow was elected president, beginning fifteen years of rule that retained tight one-party control and the neutral, gas-export policy.
Independence and the Neutral Republic
Sources: Gurbanguly Berdymukhammedov (Encyclopædia Britannica) · Turkmenistan (Encyclopædia Britannica)
- TKMCulture & Ideas
Nisa inscribed by UNESCO
The Parthian Fortresses of Nisa were inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2007 as an exceptional record of the Parthian civilisation at one of its earliest and most important cities.
Ancient Oases: Margiana and Parthian Nisa
Sources: Parthian Fortresses of Nisa (UNESCO World Heritage Centre)
- VNMEconomy & Trade
Vietnam · 2007 CE
Accession to the World Trade Organization
Vietnam joins the WTO, cementing its integration into the global economy and accelerating an export-driven manufacturing boom.
Doi Moi Reforms and Modern Vietnam
Sources: Trade Policy Review: Viet Nam (WT/TPR/G/287) (World Trade Organization) · Vietnam (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
Europe
- BIHPolitics & Power
Bosnia and Herzegovina · 26 Feb 2007
ICJ Genocide judgment (Bosnia v. Serbia)
The International Court of Justice held that genocide was committed at Srebrenica and that Serbia had violated the Genocide Convention by failing to prevent it and to cooperate with the ICTY.
Independence, the Bosnian War and the Srebrenica Genocide
Sources: Summary of the Judgment of 26 February 2007 (Bosnia v. Serbia) (International Court of Justice) · Application of the Genocide Convention (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro) (International Court of Justice)
- BGRPolitics & Power
Bulgaria · 1 Jan 2007
Accession to the European Union
Bulgaria joined the European Union on 1 January 2007, completing its return to Europe after the fall of communism and the hardships of transition.
Communism, 1989 and the Return to Europe
Sources: Bulgaria: an EU country (European Union (european-union.europa.eu)) · About Bulgaria: History (Council of Ministers of the Republic of Bulgaria (gov.bg))
- LVAPolitics & Power
Latvia-Russia border treaty
The border treaty with Russia entered into force, fixing the frontier and renouncing Latvia's claim to the Abrene district transferred to the Russian SFSR in 1944, while the Constitutional Court reaffirmed state continuity.
Soviet Rule, Restoration and the Return to Europe
Sources: So long, Abrene (The Baltic Times) · Judgment on the Latvia-Russia border treaty (case 2007-10-0102) (Constitutional Court of the Republic of Latvia)
- ROUPolitics & Power
Romania · 1 Jan 2007
Accession to the European Union
On 1 January 2007 Romania, with Bulgaria, joined the European Union, raising it to twenty-seven member states and completing Romania's integration into the West.
Revolution, democracy and the European turn
Sources: Bulgaria and Romania join the European Union (European Central Bank)
- SVNEconomy & Trade
Slovenia · 1 Jan 2007
Adoption of the euro
Slovenia became the first of the 2004 entrants to adopt the euro, replacing the tolar on 1 January 2007 and completing its integration into the core of the European Union.
A European Republic and the Border Arbitration
Sources: Slovenia – EU country (European Union (european-union.europa.eu))
North America
- CRIPolitics & Power
Costa Rica · 2007 CE
Recognition switches from Taipei to Beijing
Costa Rica transfers diplomatic recognition to the People's Republic of China in pursuit of investment.
Peace, Welfare, and the Green Republic
Sources: Costa Rica country profile (BBC News)
- NICPolitics & Power
Nicaragua · Jan 2007
Ortega returns to power
Having won the 2006 election, Daniel Ortega is inaugurated president again, beginning a long second period in office.
Democratic Interlude and Ortega's Return
Sources: Daniel Ortega (Encyclopædia Britannica) · Nicaragua: Ortega's return to power (Encyclopædia Britannica)
South America
- ECUPolitics & Power
Ecuador · 2007-2017
The Correa decade
Rafael Correa governs for ten years of his Citizens' Revolution, using oil revenue to expand the state and rewrite the constitution.
Oil, Dollar and the Modern Crisis
Sources: History of Ecuador (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
26 records
Africa
- GNQEconomy & Trade
Equatorial Guinea · 22 Feb 2008 – 16 Apr 2010
Joined, then delisted, by the transparency initiative
Equatorial Guinea joins the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative in February 2008 and is delisted in April 2010; a fresh application in October 2019 is refused by the EITI Board in February 2020.
Obiang, oil, and inequality
Sources: Equatorial Guinea — country page (Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI))
- GINPolitics & Power
Guinea · December 2008
Camara's coup after Conté's death
On the death of long-ruling President Lansana Conté, Captain Moussa Dadis Camara leads a military junta to power.
Coups, Civilian Rule and Bauxite
Sources: Guinea — History (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Guinea — 28 September Massacre / political background (GlobalSecurity.org)
- ZWEEconomy & Trade
Zimbabwe · 2008–2009
Hyperinflation and dollarisation
Inflation reached among the highest rates ever recorded, peaking in late 2008; in 2009 Zimbabwe abandoned its own currency for foreign ones such as the US dollar.
Independence, Gukurahundi and the Mugabe years
Sources: Hyperinflation in Zimbabwe (Wikipedia) · Zimbabwe: History (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
Asia
- BTNPolitics & Power
Bhutan · Jul 2008
Constitution and democratic monarchy
Following the country's first parliamentary elections, Bhutan's written Constitution comes into force, transforming the kingdom into a democratic constitutional monarchy with Gross National Happiness as a goal of the state.
Democracy and the Modern Kingdom
Sources: Bhutan — History (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · U.S. Relations With Bhutan (U.S. Department of State)
- BTNPolitics & Power
Bhutan · Nov 2008
Coronation of the fifth king
Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck is formally enthroned as the fifth Druk Gyalpo, his coronation timed to the centenary of the Wangchuck monarchy and the inauguration of democratic rule.
Democracy and the Modern Kingdom
Sources: Bhutan — History (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · U.S. Relations With Bhutan (U.S. Department of State)
- GEOWar & Rupture
Georgia · Aug 2008
Russia–Georgia war over South Ossetia
A five-day war around South Ossetia drew in the Russian military; estimates put the combined dead at about 850 with over 100,000 displaced. Russia then recognised Abkhazia and South Ossetia, a step most states rejected.
Independent Georgia: Conflicts, the Rose Revolution and the Western Turn
Sources: Georgia: Independent Georgia (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · South Ossetia (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- MYSCulture & Ideas
Melaka and George Town inscribed by UNESCO
UNESCO lists Melaka and George Town, Historic Cities of the Straits of Malacca, recognising more than five centuries of trade and multicultural exchange between East and West.
The New Economic Policy, Mahathir and Modern Malaysia
Sources: Melaka and George Town, Historic Cities of the Straits of Malacca (UNESCO World Heritage Centre)
- NPLPolitics & Power
Nepal · 28 May 2008
Monarchy abolished, republic declared
A newly elected constituent assembly ends more than two centuries of Shah rule and declares Nepal a federal democratic republic.
Insurgency, Republic and Reconstruction
Sources: Nepal — Fall of the monarchy (Encyclopædia Britannica) · Nepal — Federal republic (Encyclopædia Britannica)
- CYNPolitics & Power
Northern Cyprus · 3 April 2008
Ledra Street reopens
The crossing in the heart of walled Nicosia, closed since 1964, is reopened — the most symbolically charged of the openings along the buffer zone.
A Divided Island to the Present
Sources: Cyprus country profile (BBC News)
- OMNPolitics & Power
Oman · 21 July 2008
Final border maps include Madha and Nahwa
Oman and the UAE signed the final coordinates and maps of their border: 51 maps and three lists of coordinates for the border posts in three sectors, one of them from Madha to Al Nahwa, closing the technical demarcation begun by the 2002 agreement.
The Renaissance of Qaboos and Modern Oman
Sources: Key border agreement to be signed with Oman (Emirates24|7 (WAM))
- SAUCulture & Ideas
Hegra becomes a UNESCO World Heritage Site
The Nabataean site of Hegra (al-Hijr) was inscribed as Saudi Arabia's first UNESCO World Heritage Site, recognizing the kingdom's deep pre-Islamic past.
Oil, Modernization and Contemporary Saudi Arabia
Sources: Hegra Archaeological Site (al-Hijr / Madain Salih) (UNESCO World Heritage Centre)
- TLSPolitics & Power
Timor-Leste · 11 February 2008
Attack on the president
Rebel soldiers shoot and gravely wound President Jose Ramos-Horta and attack Prime Minister Xanana Gusmao's convoy; both survive and the rebellion collapses.
Asia's Youngest Nation
Sources: East Timor (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- AREPolitics & Power
United Arab Emirates · 21 July 2008
Final border maps include Madha and Nahwa
Oman and the UAE signed the final coordinates and maps of their border: 51 maps and three lists of coordinates for the border posts in three sectors, one of them from Madha to Al Nahwa, closing the technical demarcation begun by the 2002 agreement.
Oil Wealth and the Global Federation
Sources: Key border agreement to be signed with Oman (Emirates24|7 (WAM))
Europe
- ALBIndependence
Albania · 17 Feb 2008
Kosovo declares independence
Kosovo, whose population is overwhelmingly ethnic Albanian and which was left outside Albania in 1913, declared independence on 17 February 2008, recognised the next day by the United States.
Transition, the 1997 Crisis, NATO and Europe
Sources: A Guide to the United States' History of Recognition, Diplomatic, and Consular Relations: Kosovo (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian) · Kosovo (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- ISLEconomy & Trade
Iceland · Oct 2008
Collapse of the banks
The three big Icelandic banks, whose assets dwarfed the economy, failed within days in October 2008 in the largest banking collapse relative to GDP in history; the state passed emergency laws and turned to the IMF before recovering.
The Cod Wars and the Modern Republic
Sources: History of Iceland from 1944 (nordics.info (Aarhus University)) · Iceland: History (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- KOSIndependence
Kosovo · 17 Feb 2008
Declaration of independence
The Assembly of Kosovo declared independence from Serbia in Pristina, proclaiming the Republic of Kosovo; the United States recognised it the next day, followed by many other states.
Independence and the Contested Present
Sources: Kosovo: Self-declared independence (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Kosovo (US recognition, 18 February 2008; diplomatic history) (US Department of State, Office of the Historian)
- MNEPolitics & Power
Application for EU membership
Montenegro applied to join the European Union, beginning the accession process that would make it one of the leading candidates among the Western Balkan countries.
Independent Montenegro, NATO and Europe
Sources: Montenegro: EU accession (application 2008, candidate status December 2010, negotiations from 2012) (European Commission, Directorate-General for Enlargement and Eastern Neighbourhood)
- SRBIndependence
Serbia · 17 Feb 2008
Kosovo declares independence
Kosovo's assembly declared independence from Serbia, a step recognised by many Western states but rejected by Serbia, which continues to regard Kosovo as its autonomous province.
Modern Serbia and the Kosovo Dispute
Sources: Accordance with international law of the unilateral declaration of independence in respect of Kosovo — Advisory Opinion of 22 July 2010 (International Court of Justice) · Kosovo conflict (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
North America
- BLZPolitics & Power
Belize · 8 December 2008
Special Agreement on the dispute
Belize and Guatemala signed a Special Agreement committing to submit Guatemala's territorial, insular and maritime claim to the International Court of Justice, subject to approval by referendum in each country.
Independent Belize and the Guatemalan question
Sources: The Belize–Guatemala Territorial Differendum (Peace Fund) (Organization of American States) · Guatemala's Territorial, Insular and Maritime Claim (Guatemala/Belize), Case No. 177 (International Court of Justice)
- CUBPolitics & Power
Cuba · 2008 CE
Raul Castro assumes the presidency
An ailing Fidel Castro hands power to his brother Raul, who introduces gradual economic reforms.
Special Period, Thaw, and the Present
Sources: Cuba since 1991 (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- GRLIndependence
Greenland · 25 Nov 2008
Self-Government referendum
In a referendum some 75 per cent of Greenlandic voters approved the Self-Government arrangement, paving the way for greater autonomy and recognition of the right to self-determination.
Home Rule and Self-Government
Sources: About Greenland / Politics in Greenland (Naalakkersuisut (Government of Greenland)) · Greenland's National Day, the Home Rule Act (1979), and the Act on Self-Government (2009) (Library of Congress, In Custodia Legis (Law Library blog))
- JAMCulture & Ideas
Jamaica · 2008-2016
Bolt's sprinting dynasty
Usain Bolt wins the 100m and 200m at three straight Olympics, cementing Jamaica's dominance of world sprinting.
Independent Jamaica and Global Culture
Sources: Usain Bolt (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
South America
- PRYPolitics & Power
Paraguay · 2008 CE
First opposition victory
Former bishop Fernando Lugo wins the presidency, ending more than sixty years of Colorado Party rule in Paraguay's first electoral transfer of power between parties.
The Stroessner Era, Democracy and Itaipu
Sources: Fernando Lugo (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
Oceania
- AUSPolitics & Power
Australia · 13 February 2008
National Apology to the Stolen Generations
Prime Minister Kevin Rudd delivered a formal apology in parliament to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, and especially to the Stolen Generations harmed by past policies of forced child removal.
Modern Australia: multiculturalism, reconciliation, and the apology
Sources: Defining Moments: National Apology (National Museum of Australia) · Australia (country) (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- NCLCulture & Ideas
The lagoons join the World Heritage List
UNESCO inscribes the Lagoons of New Caledonia for reef diversity and intact ecosystems — the territory's other inheritance, held in common by both of its political camps.
Three Referendums and an Unsettled Future
Sources: Lagoons of New Caledonia: Reef Diversity and Associated Ecosystems (UNESCO World Heritage Centre)
- VUTCulture & Ideas
Chief Roi Mata's Domain joins World Heritage List
UNESCO inscribed the residence, death site and burial of Chief Roi Mata on Efate, Lelepa and Artok — Vanuatu's first World Heritage property.
Kastom, Cyclones and Climate Diplomacy
Sources: Chief Roi Mata's Domain — World Heritage List (UNESCO World Heritage Centre) · Chief Roimata's Domain — World Heritage Site (Vanuatu Tourism Office)
20 records
Africa
- BFACulture & Ideas
Loropéni inscribed by UNESCO
The Ruins of Loropéni are added to the UNESCO World Heritage List, becoming Burkina Faso's first such site.
Loropéni and the Gold Frontier
Sources: Ruins of Loropéni — World Heritage Centre (UNESCO) · 13 new sites added to UNESCO's World Heritage List (2009) (UNESCO World Heritage Centre)
- CPVCulture & Ideas
Cidade Velha named a World Heritage Site
UNESCO inscribed Cidade Velha, the Historic Centre of Ribeira Grande — the first European city in the tropics — as Cape Verde's only World Heritage Site, recognising its role in the Atlantic slave trade and colonial expansion.
A stable democracy and a global people
Sources: Cidade Velha, Historic Centre of Ribeira Grande (UNESCO World Heritage Centre) · Cidade Velha (Wikipedia)
- COMPolitics & Power
Comoros · 29 March 2009
Mayotte votes to become a French department
In a referendum, Mayotte votes overwhelmingly to become a fully integrated French department, a status it assumes in 2011 as France's 101st department.
The Union and the Mayotte Question
Sources: 2009 Mahoran status referendum (Wikipedia) · Mayotte (Encyclopædia Britannica)
- GABPolitics & Power
Death of Omar Bongo; Ali Bongo succeeds
Omar Bongo died in June 2009 after ruling for over forty years; his son Ali Bongo Ondimba won the ensuing presidential election, continuing the family's hold on power.
Independence, oil, and the Bongo era
Sources: Omar Bongo (Wikipedia) · 2023 Gabonese coup d'état (Wikipedia)
- GMBPolitics & Power
Repression and abuses under Jammeh
Jammeh's rule was marked by suppression of the press, detentions, torture, enforced disappearances and a 2009 witch-hunting campaign; a later Truth, Reconciliation and Reparations Commission documented widespread abuses.
The Jammeh era and the 2017 transition
Sources: Yahya Jammeh (Wikipedia) · The Gambia (country overview and history) (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- GINCatastrophe
Guinea · 28 September 2009
Conakry stadium massacre
Security forces fire on a peaceful opposition rally in a Conakry stadium, killing at least 157 people and committing widespread sexual violence.
Coups, Civilian Rule and Bauxite
Sources: Guinea: Ex-Coup Leader Charged in 2009 Massacre (Human Rights Watch) · Guinea — 28 September Massacre / political background (GlobalSecurity.org)
- GNBPolitics & Power
Guinea-Bissau · 2 March 2009
Vieira assassinated
Having returned to the presidency in 2005, João Bernardo Vieira was assassinated by soldiers in March 2009, hours after the killing of the army chief of staff — a vivid sign of the army's grip on politics.
Instability, civil war and the cocaine route
Sources: History of Guinea-Bissau (Wikipedia) · Guinea-Bissau (country overview and history) (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
- MDGPolitics & Power
The 2009 coup
Andry Rajoelina ousts Ravalomanana with military backing, in a transfer widely condemned as unconstitutional.
Independence & the Republics
Sources: Madagascar Timeline: Madagascar's turbulent political history (ReliefWeb / IRIN) · Marc Ravalomanana (Encyclopædia Britannica)
- SDNPolitics & Power
Sudan · 2009–2010
ICC indicts Bashir
The International Criminal Court issues warrants for President al-Bashir for war crimes, crimes against humanity and genocide — the first against a sitting head of state.
Darfur, Secession and the War of the Generals
Sources: Al Bashir Case (International Criminal Court) · ICC Issues Arrest Warrant for Sudanese President Bashir (United States Holocaust Memorial Museum)
Asia
- KGZReligion
Sulaiman-Too inscribed by UNESCO
The sacred mountain of Sulaiman-Too above Osh, with its petroglyphs, places of worship and reconstructed 16th-century mosques, became Kyrgyzstan's first UNESCO World Heritage Site, recognized for its blend of pre-Islamic and Islamic belief.
The Silk Road, the Tian Shan and the Mongol Age
Sources: Sulaiman-Too Sacred Mountain (UNESCO World Heritage Centre)
- MNGEconomy & Trade
Mongolia · c. 2009
Oyu Tolgoi and the mining boom
Agreement to develop the giant Oyu Tolgoi copper and gold deposit anchors a mining boom that multiplies Mongolia's income, reorients its economy from herding, and accelerates migration to Ulaanbaatar.
Democratic Mongolia
Sources: History of Mongolia: Mongolia since 1990 (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Mongolia (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
Europe
- ALBPolitics & Power
Albania · 1 Apr 2009
Albania joins NATO
Albania, with Croatia, formally joined NATO on 1 April 2009 as the alliance's 27th and 28th members, completing its strategic reorientation toward the West.
Transition, the 1997 Crisis, NATO and Europe
Sources: Ceremony marks the accession of Albania and Croatia to NATO (NATO) · NATO Enlargement: Albania, Croatia, and Possible Future Candidates (U.S. Congressional Research Service)
- FRAPolitics & Power
France · Article 349 TFEU
French Guiana an EU outermost region
Article 349 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union names French Guiana among the outermost regions, whose remoteness justifies specific measures in the application of EU law there. It is one of nine such regions.
The Republics & the Modern Nation
Sources: Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, Article 349 (EUR-Lex) · Outermost regions (European Commission, Regional and Urban Policy)
- LIEPolitics & Power
Diplomatic relations with the Czech Republic
After more than six decades without recognition arising from the 1945 confiscations, Liechtenstein and the Czech Republic established diplomatic relations in 2009 and created a joint commission of historians.
A Wealthy Microstate: Finance, the ICJ Case and the Modern Constitution
Sources: History of Czech–Liechtenstein relations (confiscations and 2009 relations) (Czech-Liechtenstein Society)
- ROUPolitics & Power
Romania · 3 Feb 2009
ICJ Black Sea boundary with Ukraine
The International Court of Justice fixed the Romania–Ukraine maritime boundary in the Black Sea, ruling that Ukraine's Serpents' Island would have no effect beyond its 12-mile territorial sea.
Revolution, democracy and the European turn
Sources: Maritime Delimitation in the Black Sea (Romania v. Ukraine), Judgment of 3 February 2009 (International Court of Justice)
- SVKEconomy & Trade
Slovakia · 1 Jan 2009
Slovakia adopts the euro
Slovakia adopted the euro on 1 January 2009, becoming the sixteenth member of the euro area and the first of the Visegrád states to do so.
Independent Slovakia in Europe
Sources: Slovakia and the euro (European Commission (Economy and Finance))
- SVNPolitics & Power
Slovenia · 4 Nov 2009
Arbitration Agreement with Croatia
Slovenia and Croatia signed an Arbitration Agreement submitting their land and maritime border dispute, including Piran Bay, to the Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague.
A European Republic and the Border Arbitration
Sources: Arbitration (the border dispute with Croatia) (Government of Slovenia (gov.si)) · Arbitration between the Republic of Croatia and the Republic of Slovenia (PCA Case No. 2012-04, Final Award 29 June 2017) (Permanent Court of Arbitration)
North America
- GRLFormation
Greenland · 21 Jun 2009
Act on Greenland Self-Government in force
The Self-Government Act came into force on Greenland's National Day, recognising the people of Greenland as a people under international law with the right to self-determination and a legal path to independence.
Home Rule and Self-Government
Sources: Act no. 473 of 12 June 2009: Act on Greenland Self-Government (Prime Minister's Office of Denmark (Statsministeriet)) · Greenland: The Unity of the Realm (Prime Minister's Office of Denmark (Statsministeriet)) · Greenland's National Day, the Home Rule Act (1979), and the Act on Self-Government (2009) (Library of Congress, In Custodia Legis (Law Library blog))
- HNDPolitics & Power
Honduras · 28 June 2009
Removal of President Zelaya
The military removes President Manuel Zelaya and Congress installs Roberto Micheletti; a later OAS commission deems the removal an illegal coup while finding Zelaya had defied the courts.
Crisis, Migration, and a New Century
Sources: Manuel Zelaya (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Honduras: The 21st century (Encyclopaedia Britannica)
South America
- BOLPolitics & Power
Bolivia · 2009 CE
Plurinational constitution
A new constitution refounds Bolivia as a plurinational state recognising its indigenous nations and expanding their rights.
Democracy and the Indigenous-Majority Era
Sources: Evo Morales (Encyclopaedia Britannica)