The 1820s

Africa

1. 🇧🇫BFA

   Burkina Faso · Catastrophe · early 19th century

   Loropéni settlement abandoned

   The fortified settlement at Loropéni is abandoned, for reasons still debated by archaeologists.

   Loropéni and the Gold Frontier

   Sources: Ruins of Loropéni — World Heritage Centre (UNESCO) · Ruins of Loropéni (Wikipedia)

2. 🇸🇿SWZ

   Eswatini · Peoples & Migration · c. 1820s

   Migration into central Eswatini

   Attacked by the Ndwandwe, Sobhuza I moves his people north and establishes a kingdom centred on the Ezulwini valley, the heartland of the Swazi nation.

   The Mfecane and the Making of a Nation

   Sources: Sobhuza I (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · King Sobhuza I (South African History Online)

3. 🇲🇼MWI

   Malawi · Peoples & Migration · c. 1820s–1850s

   Ngoni and Yao migrations reshape the region

   Ngoni warrior bands fleeing the Mfecane settled around Lake Nyasa, while the Yao migrated from northern Mozambique and the Tumbuka occupied the northern highlands, overlaying new peoples on the older Chewa chiefdoms.

   Migrations, missionaries and the slave trade

   Sources: Malawi (country overview and history) (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · History of Malawi (Wikipedia)

4. 🇸🇩SDN

   Sudan · Colonisation · 1820–1821

   Turco-Egyptian conquest; Khartoum founded

   Muhammad Ali's armies conquer the Sudan; Khartoum is founded c. 1821 at the junction of the Blue and White Niles as the seat of Egyptian rule.

   Turco-Egyptian Rule and the Mahdist Revolt

   Sources: History of Sudan — Egyptian-Ottoman rule over the Sudan (Encyclopædia Britannica) · Khartoum, Sudan (1821– ) (BlackPast.org)

Asia

1. 🇦🇪ARE

   United Arab Emirates · Politics & Power

   The General Treaty of Peace

   The coastal sheikhs signed the General Treaty of Peace with Britain, limiting maritime aggression and initiating the series of agreements that established British paramountcy over the future emirates.

   The Qawasim and the Making of the Trucial States

   Sources: History of the United Arab Emirates (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Qasimi dynasty: Family, Origins, and Piracy Claims (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

2. 🇻🇳VNM

   Vietnam · Politics & Power · 1820-1841 CE

   Reign of Minh Mang

   Emperor Minh Mang consolidates the Confucian state, completes administrative reforms, and intensifies suspicion of European traders and Catholic missionaries.

   The Nguyen Dynasty and Expansion South

   Sources: Nguyen dynasty (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

North America

1. 🇨🇺CUB

   Cuba · Economy & Trade · 19th c.

   Sugar-and-slavery boom

   Cuba becomes the world's leading sugar producer, importing over 600,000 enslaved Africans; by 1860 it makes nearly a third of the world's sugar.

   Spanish Colony: Havana, Sugar, and Slavery

   Sources: Cuba: Sugarcane and the growth of slavery (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

South America

1. 🇦🇷ARG

   Argentina · Politics & Power · 1820 CE

   Collapse of central authority

   The United Provinces fragment as central government breaks down and provincial caudillos contend for power, beginning decades of civil war.

   May Revolution and the Wars of Independence

   Sources: Argentina (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

2. 🇫🇰FLK

   Falkland Islands · Politics & Power

   Buenos Aires proclaims sovereignty

   Having declared independence from Spain in 1816, the Buenos Aires government proclaimed its sovereignty over the islands, the basis of Argentina's later claim.

   Buenos Aires, Vernet, and 1833

   Sources: Falkland Islands — History (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · The South Atlantic Crisis, 1982 (Conflict over the Falkland Islands / Islas Malvinas) (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian)

Oceania

1. 🇳🇿NZL

   New Zealand · War & Rupture · c. 1818–1840

   The musket wars

   The spread of firearms unleashed a generation of devastating inter-tribal warfare, with leaders such as Te Rauparaha driving migrations and conquests that killed tens of thousands and reshaped the tribal map.

   European contact, missionaries, and the musket wars

   Sources: Musket wars (Te Ara — The Encyclopedia of New Zealand) · Te Rauparaha (NZ History (Manatū Taonga — Ministry for Culture and Heritage))

Africa

1. 🇱🇷LBR

   Liberia · Colonisation

   Acquisition of Cape Mesurado

   Society agents, backed by a U.S. naval officer, secured Cape Mesurado from local rulers as the site for the colony, after an earlier attempt to settle at Sherbro Island had failed.

   The American Colonization Society settlement

   Sources: Monrovia, Liberia (1822– ) (BlackPast.org) · Monrovia (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

2. 🇸🇸SDS

   South Sudan · War & Rupture

   Turco-Egyptian conquest reaches Sudan

   Muhammad Ali's forces conquer the Funj lands and extend Egyptian rule up the Nile, seeking gold, ivory and slaves and making Khartoum the seat of administration.

   Conquest, Ivory and the Slave Raids

   Sources: Turco-Egyptian conquest of Sudan (1820–1824) (Wikipedia) · Khartoum, Sudan (1821– ) (BlackPast.org)

Europe

1. 🇬🇷GRC

   Greece · Independence · 25 March 1821 (traditional)

   Outbreak of the Greek War of Independence

   Revolution against Ottoman rule erupted across the Peloponnese and beyond, beginning the war that would create an independent Greek state and inspiring philhellenes across Europe.

   Ottoman Rule and the War of Independence

   Sources: War of Greek Independence (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Greek Independence from the Ottoman Empire (EBSCO Research Starters)

North America

1. 🇨🇷CRI

   Costa Rica · Independence · 15 Sept 1821

   Independence from Spain

   Central America, Costa Rica included, declares independence from Spain; the province soon joins the Mexican Empire and then a regional federation.

   Independence and a Coffee Republic

   Sources: History of Costa Rica (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Costa Rica: Independence (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

2. 🇩🇴DOM

   Dominican Republic · Independence · Dec 1821

   Ephemeral Independence

   Governor Jose Nunez de Caceres declares Santo Domingo independent of Spain, hoping to join Gran Colombia; the fragile state lasts only a matter of weeks.

   A Divided Island and the French Era

   Sources: History of the Dominican Republic (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

3. 🇸🇻SLV

   El Salvador · Independence · 15 September 1821

   Independence from Spain declared

   The Act of Independence of Central America, signed in Guatemala City, frees the region including the province of San Salvador from Spanish rule.

   Independence and the Coffee Republic

   Sources: Acta de Independencia de Centro America (Library of Congress (In Custodia Legis)) · Central American Federation (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian) · Central America: Independence, 1808-23 (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

4. 🇬🇹GTM

   Guatemala · Independence · 15 Sept 1821

   Independence from Spain

   Guatemala City signs the Act of Independence of Central America, ending nearly three centuries of Spanish rule.

   Colony, Independence, and Federation

   Sources: Central America: Independence, 1808-23 (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Guatemala: Country Guide (Hispanic Reading Room) (Library of Congress)

5. 🇭🇳HND

   Honduras · Independence · 15 Sept 1821

   Independence from Spain

   The provinces of the Captaincy General of Guatemala, Honduras among them, declare their independence from Spain.

   Independence, Federation, and Morazán

   Sources: A Guide to the History of Recognition: Honduras (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian) · Honduras: History (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

6. 🇲🇽MEX

   Mexico · Independence · 27 Sept 1821

   Independence consummated

   The Army of the Three Guarantees enters Mexico City following the Treaty of Cordoba, ending Spanish rule.

   Independence and the Early Republic

   Sources: Winning Independence (Lumen Learning, SUNY World History) · Grito de Dolores (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

7. 🇳🇮NIC

   Nicaragua · Independence · 15 Sept 1821

   Independence from Spain

   Nicaragua, with the other provinces of the Captaincy General of Guatemala, declares independence from Spain in the Act of Independence of Central America.

   Independence, Rivalry, and the Filibuster

   Sources: History of Nicaragua (Encyclopædia Britannica) · Nicaragua (Encyclopædia Britannica)

8. 🇵🇦PAN

   Panama · Independence · 28 Nov 1821

   Independence from Spain and union

   Panama declares independence from Spain and voluntarily joins Gran Colombia, remaining tied to Colombia after Gran Colombia dissolves.

   A Province of Colombia

   Sources: Panama (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Panama: A Country Study (Library of Congress Country Studies)

South America

1. 🇨🇴COL

   Colombia · Politics & Power · 1821 CE

   Congress of Cucuta

   The republic of Gran Colombia is formally organised, uniting New Granada, Venezuela, and Ecuador under Bolivar's presidency.

   Independence and Gran Colombia

   Sources: Gran Colombia (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

2. 🇵🇪PER

   Peru · Independence · 28 July 1821

   Independence proclaimed by San Martin

   Having entered Lima, Jose de San Martin proclaims the independence of Peru and becomes its Protector, though Spanish armies still hold the highlands.

   Rebellion and Independence

   Sources: Peru: Achievement of independence (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Jose de San Martin (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

3. 🇻🇪VEN

   Venezuela · War & Rupture · 24 June 1821

   Battle of Carabobo

   Bolivar's victory over the Spanish army at Carabobo, won with Paez's llaneros and foreign volunteers, virtually secures Venezuelan independence.

   The Cradle of Independence and Simon Bolivar

   Sources: Battle of Carabobo (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Simon Bolivar (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

Africa

1. 🇱🇷LBR

   Liberia · Colonisation

   First settlers land and found the colony

   Free-born and freed African American settlers went ashore at Cape Mesurado and established the settlement of Christopolis, the nucleus of the colony of Liberia, with the agent Jehudi Ashmun organising its early administration.

   The American Colonization Society settlement

   Sources: Monrovia, Liberia (1822– ) (BlackPast.org) · Monrovia (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · History of Liberia: A Time Line (U.S. Library of Congress)

2. 🇸🇹STP

   São Tomé and Príncipe · Economy & Trade · early 19th century

   Coffee and cocoa introduced

   Coffee and then cocoa, brought from Brazil around the 1820s, were planted on the islands, reviving the plantation economy after the long decline of sugar.

   Cocoa, the roças and the 'cocoa slavery' scandal

   Sources: History of São Tomé and Príncipe (Wikipedia) · São Tomé and Príncipe (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

Asia

1. 🇰🇿KAZ

   Kazakhstan · Colonisation · 1822–1848

   Russia abolishes the Kazakh khanates

   To end Kazakh autonomy, Russia abolishes the khanate of the Middle Horde in 1822, the Little Horde in 1824, and the Great Horde in 1848, dismantling the political structure of the Kazakh Khanate.

   The Russian Conquest of the Steppe

   Sources: History of Kazakhstan (Encyclopædia Britannica) · Kazakhstan (Encyclopædia Britannica)

Europe

1. 🇵🇹PRT

   Portugal · Colonisation · 7 Sep 1822

   Independence of Brazil

   Pedro, regent and son of John VI, declared Brazil independent and became its emperor, ending Portugal's rule over its largest and wealthiest colony.

   Earthquake, Napoleon and the Loss of Brazil

   Sources: Pedro I, emperor of Brazil (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · John VI, king of Portugal (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

North America

1. 🇩🇴DOM

   Dominican Republic · Politics & Power · 1822 CE

   Haitian unification of the island

   President Jean-Pierre Boyer occupies the east and unifies all Hispaniola under Haiti for twenty-two years, abolishing slavery but alienating much of the Dominican population.

   Haitian Rule and Dominican Independence

   Sources: History of the Dominican Republic (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

South America

1. 🇧🇷BRA

   Brazil · Independence · 7 Sept 1822

   Independence and the Empire

   Dom Pedro proclaims independence at the Cry of Ipiranga and is acclaimed Emperor Pedro I, founding the Empire of Brazil.

   Independence and the Empire of Brazil

   Sources: Pedro I, Emperor of Brazil (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Brazil (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

2. 🇪🇨ECU

   Ecuador · Independence · 24 May 1822

   Battle of Pichincha

   Antonio Jose de Sucre defeats the royalist army on the slopes of Pichincha above Quito, securing the independence of the lands of the old Audiencia of Quito.

   The Light of America: Independence and the Republic

   Sources: Battle of Pichincha (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

3. 🇪🇨ECU

   Ecuador · Politics & Power · 1822-1830

   Union with Gran Colombia

   Liberated Quito joins Simon Bolivar's Republic of Gran Colombia alongside Venezuela and New Granada until the union breaks apart.

   The Light of America: Independence and the Republic

   Sources: Gran Colombia (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Simon Bolivar (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

Africa

1. 🇧🇯BEN

   Benin · War & Rupture

   Dahomey breaks free of Oyo

   Ghezo defeated the weakened Yoruba empire of Oyo, ending the tributary status Dahomey had borne since the early eighteenth century and asserting full independence.

   Ouidah, the slave trade, King Ghezo and the Agojie

   Sources: Ghezo (Wikipedia) · Dahomey — historical kingdom, Africa (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

2. 🇳🇦NAM

   Namibia · Peoples & Migration · from 1823

   Jonker Afrikaner and the Orlam

   Jonker Afrikaner led his Orlam followers north into the central highlands, founding a settlement at Windhoek around 1840 and building a mounted, gun-armed state that dominated the interior until 1861.

   The desert coast, the Orlam migration and the Nama polities

   Sources: Jonker Afrikaner (Wikipedia) · History of Namibia (Wikipedia)

North America

1. 🇬🇹GTM

   Guatemala · Formation · 1823-1824

   Federal Republic of Central America

   The former captaincy general forms a federation of five states, with Guatemala City as its capital.

   Colony, Independence, and Federation

   Sources: Central America: Independence, 1808-23 (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

2. 🇭🇳HND

   Honduras · Politics & Power · 1823 CE

   Federal Republic of Central America

   After a brief Mexican annexation, Honduras joins the United Provinces of Central America under a federal constitution adopted in 1824.

   Independence, Federation, and Morazán

   Sources: A Guide to the History of Recognition: Honduras (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian) · United Provinces of Central America (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

South America

1. 🇬🇾GUY

   Guyana · War & Rupture · Aug 1823

   The Demerara rising

   Thousands of enslaved people in Demerara rebel, believing emancipation has been withheld; the revolt is brutally suppressed, and the death of missionary John Smith galvanises British abolitionists.

   British Guiana: Emancipation and Indenture

   Sources: Guyana — History (Colonialism, Independence, Culture) (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Guyana and Belize: Country Studies (U.S. Library of Congress, Federal Research Division)

Africa

1. 🇬🇭GHA

   Ghana · War & Rupture

   Asante victory at Nsamankow

   At the Battle of Nsamankow the Asante defeated a British-led force and killed the Gold Coast governor Sir Charles MacCarthy, an early reversal in the long Anglo-Asante wars.

   The Asante Empire and the Golden Stool

   Sources: The Anglo-Ashanti Wars (1823–1900) (BlackPast.org) · Anglo-Ashanti wars (Wikipedia)

2. 🇱🇸LSO

   Lesotho · Formation · c. 1824

   Moshoeshoe occupies Thaba Bosiu

   Moshoeshoe I settles the defensible mountain of Thaba Bosiu, the stronghold from which he gathers difaqane refugees into the Basotho nation.

   Moshoeshoe and the Birth of the Basotho

   Sources: Lesotho: The Sotho kingdom (1824–69) (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Moshoeshoe, founder of Lesotho (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · King Moshoeshoe I (South African History Online)

3. 🇱🇷LBR

   Liberia · Colonisation

   Christopolis renamed Monrovia

   The settlement was renamed Monrovia after U.S. President James Monroe, a patron of the Colonization Society, and the colony was named Liberia, 'land of the free'.

   The American Colonization Society settlement

   Sources: Monrovia (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Monrovia, Liberia (1822– ) (BlackPast.org)

4. 🇲🇿MOZ

   Mozambique · Peoples & Migration · c. 1820s

   Soshangane founds the Gaza Empire

   Nguni warriors fleeing the upheavals of the Mfecane, led by Soshangane, conquer much of southern Mozambique and establish the Gaza Empire.

   Prazos, the Gaza Empire and Conquest

   Sources: Gaza Empire (Wikipedia) · Gungunhana (Wikipedia)

Asia

1. 🇲🇲MMR

   Myanmar · War & Rupture · 1824-1826 CE

   First Anglo-Burmese War

   War over the Arakan and Assam frontiers ends with the Treaty of Yandabo (1826), forcing Burma to cede Arakan and Tenasserim to Britain.

   The Anglo-Burmese Wars and British Rule

   Sources: Anglo-Burmese Wars (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Treaty of Yandabo (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

2. 🇸🇦SAU

   Saudi Arabia · Formation

   Turki ibn Abdullah founds the Second Saudi State

   Turki ibn Abdullah Al Saud expelled the occupying garrisons, re-established Saudi rule, and made Riyadh the capital of a revived but smaller state.

   The First and Second Saudi States and the Al Saud-Wahhab Alliance

   Sources: Second Saudi state (Wikipedia) · Second Saudi State (Saudipedia)

North America

1. 🇨🇷CRI

   Costa Rica · Politics & Power · 1824 CE

   Juan Mora Fernandez, first head of state

   Costa Rica's first elected head of state founds schools and courts and promotes coffee planting through free land grants.

   Independence and a Coffee Republic

   Sources: Mora Fernandez, Juan (1784-1854) (Encyclopedia.com (Dictionary of Latin American History))

2. 🇸🇻SLV

   El Salvador · Politics & Power

   Federal Republic of Central America

   The provinces adopt the constitution of the Federal Republic of Central America, a union of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica in which the Salvadoran Francisco Morazan becomes a leading figure.

   Independence and the Coffee Republic

   Sources: United Provinces of Central America (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Central American Federation (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian)

3. 🇲🇽MEX

   Mexico · Politics & Power · 1824 CE

   First federal republic

   The Constitution of 1824 founds the United Mexican States as a federal republic, with Guadalupe Victoria as first president.

   Independence and the Early Republic

   Sources: Winning Independence (Lumen Learning, SUNY World History)

South America

1. 🇧🇴BOL

   Bolivia · War & Rupture · 9 Dec 1824

   Battle of Ayacucho

   Antonio Jose de Sucre routs the last great royalist army at Ayacucho, sealing the independence of Spanish South America and opening the way to liberate Charcas.

   The Revolt of Tupac Katari and Independence

   Sources: Antonio Jose de Sucre (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Simon Bolivar: Bolivia (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

2. 🇵🇪PER

   Peru · Independence · 9 Dec 1824

   Battle of Ayacucho

   Antonio Jose de Sucre defeats the main royalist army and captures the viceroy at Ayacucho, sealing the independence of Peru and the new South American republics.

   Rebellion and Independence

   Sources: Battle of Ayacucho (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Peru: Achievement of independence (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

3. 🇵🇪PER

   Peru · War & Rupture · 6 Aug 1824

   Battle of Junin

   Bolivar's forces win a cavalry battle at Junin, opening the way to the final campaign against the royalists in the Peruvian sierra.

   Rebellion and Independence

   Sources: Peru: Achievement of independence (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

Oceania

1. 🇦🇺AUS

   Australia · War & Rupture · 1820s–1900s

   The frontier wars

   Across the continent, the expansion of pastoral settlement met Aboriginal resistance in a long, dispersed frontier conflict of raids, reprisals, and massacres that, with introduced disease, devastated Aboriginal peoples and dispossessed them of their land.

   Colonial expansion, gold rushes, and frontier conflict

   Sources: Australia (country) (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Defining Moments: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander history (National Museum of Australia)

Asia

1. 🇰🇬KGZ

   Kyrgyzstan · Politics & Power · early 19th c.

   Kyrgyz under the Khanate of Kokand

   The Khanate of Kokand extended its rule over the Kyrgyz tribes, building the fortress of Pishpek (later Bishkek) to control the Chüy valley and recruiting Kyrgyz fighters, though its rule was widely resisted.

   The Khanate of Kokand and the Russian Conquest

   Sources: Khanate of Kokand (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Kyrgyzstan: A Country Study (in Kazakstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan: Country Studies) (U.S. Library of Congress, Federal Research Division)

North America

1. 🇭🇹HTI

   Haiti · Economy & Trade · 1825 CE

   The French indemnity

   France recognises Haitian independence only in exchange for an indemnity of 150 million francs, burdening Haiti with crippling debt.

   Kingdom, Republic, and the Indemnity

   Sources: History of Haiti (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

South America

1. 🇧🇴BOL

   Bolivia · Independence · 6 Aug 1825

   Republic of Bolivia proclaimed

   A congress at Chuquisaca declares the independence of Upper Peru as a republic named Bolivia in honour of Simon Bolivar, with Sucre soon its first president.

   The Revolt of Tupac Katari and Independence

   Sources: Simon Bolivar: Bolivia (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Antonio Jose de Sucre (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

2. 🇺🇾URY

   Uruguay · Independence · 25 Aug 1825

   The Thirty-Three Orientals declare independence

   Juan Antonio Lavalleja and the Thirty-Three Orientals, having landed that April, proclaim separation from Brazil and union with the United Provinces, reigniting the war for the province.

   Artigas, the Thirty-Three, and Independence

   Sources: Juan Antonio Lavalleja (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Uruguay: The struggle for national identity (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

Africa

1. 🇧🇼BWA

   Botswana · War & Rupture

   Sebego expels the Kololo

   Sebego, regent of the Bangwaketse, raises some 4,000 men and permanently drives the invading Kololo out of the region.

   The Tswana Nations and the Difaqane

   Sources: History of Botswana (Wikipedia)

Africa

1. 🇩🇿DZA

   Algeria · Politics & Power

   The "fly-whisk" incident

   A dispute over French debts ends with the dey of Algiers striking the French consul with a fly-whisk, a slight France later uses as a pretext for invasion.

   The Ottoman Regency of Algiers

   Sources: France Conquers Algeria (EBSCO Research Starters) · History of Algeria (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

2. 🇬🇶GNQ

   Equatorial Guinea · Colonisation

   Britain founds an anti-slavery base at Port Clarence

   With Spanish acquiescence, the Royal Navy under William Fitzwilliam Owen established a base on Fernando Pó in 1827, founding Port Clarence (later Santa Isabel/Malabo) to support the squadron suppressing the Atlantic slave trade.

   The British base and the Spanish cocoa colony

   Sources: History of Equatorial Guinea (Wikipedia) · Equatorial Guinea (New World Encyclopedia) · History of Equatorial Guinea (Encyclopædia Britannica)

3. 🇸🇱SLE

   Sierra Leone · Culture & Ideas · 18 February 1827

   Fourah Bay College founded

   The Church Missionary Society founded Fourah Bay College in Freetown, the first Western-style university in sub-Saharan Africa, helping earn the city the name 'the Athens of West Africa'.

   Crown Colony, Liberated Africans, and the Krio

   Sources: Fourah Bay College (1827– ) (BlackPast.org) · Fourah Bay College (Wikipedia)

Europe

1. 🇬🇷GRC

   Greece · War & Rupture · 20 October 1827

   Battle of Navarino

   A combined British, French and Russian fleet destroyed the Ottoman-Egyptian navy at Navarino, a decisive intervention by the Great Powers that turned the war in Greece's favour.

   Ottoman Rule and the War of Independence

   Sources: War of Greek Independence (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Greek Independence from the Ottoman Empire (EBSCO Research Starters)

Asia

1. 🇦🇲ARM

   Armenia · War & Rupture

   Russia annexes eastern Armenia

   Following war with Persia, Russia annexed the eastern (Persian) Armenian lands, dividing the Armenian homeland between the Russian and Ottoman empires.

   Empires, the Genocide and the First Republic

   Sources: Armenia — Caucasus, Soviet Union, Genocide (Modern Armenia) (Encyclopædia Britannica)

2. 🇦🇿AZE

   Azerbaijan · War & Rupture

   Treaty of Turkmenchay

   The second Russo-Persian war ended with Turkmenchay, confirming Russian rule and adding Nakhichevan and Yerevan, fixing the Aras-river border that still divides the two Azerbaijans.

   Persian khanates and Russian annexation

   Sources: Treaty of Turkmenchay, 1828 (Encyclopædia Britannica) · Azerbaijan: Russian suzerainty and the road to independence (Encyclopædia Britannica)

3. 🇱🇦LAO

   Laos · War & Rupture · 1828 CE

   Siam destroys Vientiane

   After King Anouvong's failed revolt against Bangkok, Siamese forces sack and raze Vientiane and deport its people, ending the kingdom of Vientiane.

   Three Kingdoms and Siamese Vassalage

   Sources: Vientiane (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Laos: History (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

Europe

1. 🇲🇩MDA

   Moldova · Politics & Power · 1828–1829

   Curtailment of Bessarabian autonomy

   After an initial period of limited self-government, Russia integrated Bessarabia into the imperial administration, beginning a policy of Russification that made Russian the language of government and schooling.

   Russian Bessarabia

   Sources: Bessarabia (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Moldova: History (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

South America

1. 🇺🇾URY

   Uruguay · Independence · 1828 CE

   Treaty of Montevideo creates Uruguay

   Under British mediation, the Preliminary Peace Convention ends the Argentine-Brazilian war by establishing the contested territory as the independent buffer state of Uruguay.

   Artigas, the Thirty-Three, and Independence

   Sources: A Guide to the United States' History of Recognition, Diplomatic, and Consular Relations: Uruguay (U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian) · Uruguay: The struggle for national identity (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

South America

1. 🇦🇷ARG

   Argentina · Politics & Power · 1829-1852

   The rule of Rosas

   The Federalist caudillo Juan Manuel de Rosas dominates Argentina as governor of Buenos Aires until his fall, a period of strongman rule and conflict.

   Civil Wars, Unification and the Liberal Republic

   Sources: Juan Manuel de Rosas (Encyclopaedia Britannica) · Argentina (Encyclopaedia Britannica)