- — Africa:
Arusha Peace Agreement
The Arusha Peace and Reconciliation Agreement, mediated by Nyerere and then Mandela, sets out ethnic power-sharing and a path out of the war.
Era: Democracy, Assassination and Civil War
Sources: Arusha Accords (Burundi) · Wikipedia, Burundi: Why the Arusha Accords are Central · Africa Center for Strategic Studies
- — North America:
San Juan navigation dispute settled
Costa Rica and Nicaragua resolve a long-standing quarrel over navigation on the river that forms their border.
Era: Peace, Welfare, and the Green Republic
Sources: Costa Rica country profile · BBC News
- — Africa:
Algiers Agreement
Eritrea and Ethiopia sign the Algiers peace agreement; a boundary commission later awards Badme to Eritrea, but Ethiopia refuses to withdraw, leaving a frozen stand-off.
Era: Independence, Border War and the Closed State
Sources: Algiers Agreement (2000) · Wikipedia
- — Oceania:
Speight hostage crisis
Armed men led by George Speight seize parliament and hold the Chaudhry government hostage for 56 days, triggering a constitutional crisis.
Era: Independence Tested: The Cycle of Coups
Sources: George Speight — Fijian coup leader · Encyclopædia Britannica, Mahendra Chaudhry — prime minister of Fiji · Encyclopædia Britannica
- — Africa:
First democratic alternation of power
John Kufuor of the New Patriotic Party defeated the ruling NDC, the first peaceful transfer of power between parties in the Fourth Republic and a milestone in Ghana's democratic consolidation.
Era: Coups, republics, and modern democracy
Sources: Ghana (country overview and history) · Encyclopaedia Britannica, Consolidating Democracy in Ghana: An Overview · Kujenga Amani (Social Science Research Council)
- — North America:
End of one-party rule
Vicente Fox's election ends 71 years of uninterrupted PRI government, marking Mexico's democratic alternation of power.
Era: Modern Mexico: The PRI Era to Today
Sources: Vicente Fox · Encyclopaedia Britannica
- — Asia:
First inter-Korean summit
Kim Jong Il hosts South Korean president Kim Dae-jung in Pyongyang in the first summit between the two Koreas, briefly easing tensions.
Era: Famine and the Second Succession
Sources: History of North Korea · Encyclopaedia Britannica, Kim Jong Il · Encyclopaedia Britannica
- — Europe:
Vladimir Putin becomes president
After Yeltsin's resignation, Vladimir Putin wins the presidency and, aided by rising oil and gas revenues, stabilizes the economy while progressively centralizing political power and curbing independent media.
Era: Post-Soviet Russia
Sources: Russia · Encyclopaedia Britannica
- — Africa:
Kagame becomes president
Paul Kagame formally assumes the presidency and consolidates power, presiding over reconstruction and growth alongside tight control of political life.
Era: Aftermath, Justice and Reconstruction
Sources: History of Rwanda · Wikipedia, Massacre of the Tutsi Minority · United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
- — Africa:
Wade defeats Diouf
Abdoulaye Wade wins the presidency from Abdou Diouf — Senegal's first transfer of power across party lines.
Era: A Democratic Republic and the Casamance Question
Sources: Senegal — The Global State of Democracy · International IDEA, Senegal's Democratic Evolution: Elections, Governance, and Presidential Legacies · Centre for Democracy and Development Africa
- — Europe:
Fall of Milošević
After disputed elections, mass protests in Belgrade forced Milošević from power; he was later tried at the ICTY in The Hague but died in 2006 before a verdict was reached.
Era: The Breakup of Yugoslavia and the Kosovo War
Sources: Slobodan Milošević · Encyclopaedia Britannica, Slobodan Milošević (IT-02-54) case information · International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (UN-IRMCT)
- — Asia:
First inter-Korean summit
President Kim Dae-jung meets North Korea's Kim Jong-il in Pyongyang under the Sunshine Policy; Kim Dae-jung receives the Nobel Peace Prize that year.
Era: Democratization and Modern South Korea
Sources: Kim Dae-Jung · Encyclopaedia Britannica
- — Asia:
Bashar al-Assad succeeds his father
On Hafez al-Assad's death, his son Bashar becomes president; early hopes of reform give way to a continuation of the authoritarian, single-party system.
Era: The Assad Era, the Civil War and the Fall of 2024
Sources: Bashar al-Assad · Encyclopaedia Britannica
- — Africa:
Peaceful alternation of power
The PAICV returned to government in the 2001 elections and Pedro Pires won the presidency, confirming a pattern of peaceful, competitive transfers of power between rival parties.
Era: A stable democracy and a global people
Sources: Background Note: Cape Verde · U.S. Department of State, History of Cape Verde · Wikipedia
- — Africa:
Union constitution and rotating presidency
Following the Fomboni accords, a new constitution approved by referendum creates the Union of the Comoros, giving each island autonomy and rotating the Union presidency among the three islands.
Era: The Union and the Mayotte Question
Sources: Union of Comoros · Encyclopedia.com, Comoros: History · Encyclopædia Britannica
- — Africa:
Final FRUD peace accord
President Guelleh presides over a final peace agreement with the hardline FRUD faction led by Ahmed Dini, formally ending the decade-long conflict.
Era: Civil War, Guelleh and the Republic of Bases
Sources: Djiboutian Civil War · Wikipedia, Djibouti: Peace agreement addresses Afar discontent · The New Humanitarian
- — Africa:
Laurent Kabila assassinated
President Laurent-Désiré Kabila is shot dead in Kinshasa; his son Joseph Kabila succeeds him and seeks peace.
Era: Africa's World War & After
Sources: Second Congo War · Wikipedia, Kabila, Laurent-Désiré (1939–2001) · BlackPast.org
- — Africa:
Entrenched one-party rule
Promised elections and the ratified constitution are shelved; indefinite national service and bans on independent press, parties and religion make Eritrea one of the world's most closed states.
Era: Independence, Border War and the Closed State
Sources: Eritrea-Ethiopia Peace Deal Offers Hope for Reform · Human Rights Watch, Eritrea: People and Society · CIA World Factbook
- — Europe:
Constitutional Framework for self-government
UNMIK established a Constitutional Framework for Provisional Self-Government, creating an assembly, presidency and government for Kosovo while final status and ultimate authority remained with the UN administration.
Era: War, NATO Intervention and UN Administration
Sources: UNMIK Regulation 2001/9: Constitutional Framework for Provisional Self-Government in Kosovo · Council of Europe, Venice Commission
- — Europe:
The Ohrid Framework Agreement
The agreement ended the 2001 ethnic Albanian insurgency, rejecting territorial partition and granting the Albanian minority greater rights through decentralisation, equitable representation, language rights and double-majority voting.
Era: The Ohrid Framework, NATO and the Road to Europe
Sources: Ohrid Agreement (Framework Agreement, 13 August 2001) · Peace Accords Matrix, Kroc Institute, University of Notre Dame
- — Asia:
The peacekeeping mandate rolls on
The Security Council renews a mission begun in 1964; some 2,400 peacekeepers patrol the buffer zone between the two communities.
Era: A Divided Island to the Present
Sources: Cyprus country profile · BBC News, About UNFICYP · United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus
- — Oceania:
Bougainville Peace Agreement
Following a 1998 ceasefire, a peace agreement created the Autonomous Region of Bougainville and promised a future referendum on the island's political status.
Era: Bougainville and modern Papua New Guinea
Sources: Bougainville: the conflict in focus · Conciliation Resources, The Bougainville referendum and beyond · University of Melbourne, Laureate Program in Comparative Constitutional Law
- — Africa:
Constitution approved by referendum
A national referendum approved Somaliland's constitution by an overwhelming margin, a vote widely interpreted as also confirming popular support for independence.
Era: Restoration and the Building of a State
Sources: 2001 Somaliland constitutional referendum · Wikipedia, Researching the Somaliland Legal System · GlobaLex, NYU Law
- — Africa:
New constitution; Sassou Nguesso elected
A new constitution adopted in 2002 entrenched Sassou Nguesso's presidency; he won the presidential election that year and was re-elected in 2009 amid opposition complaints.
Era: Democracy, civil war, and the return of Sassou Nguesso
Sources: Denis Sassou Nguesso · Wikipedia, Denis Sassou-Nguesso · Encyclopædia Britannica
- — Africa:
Kibaki ends KANU rule
Mwai Kibaki wins the presidency, ending nearly four decades of unbroken KANU government since independence.
Era: The Republic of Kenya
Sources: Mwai Kibaki · Encyclopaedia Britannica, History of Kenya · Wikipedia
- — Africa:
Ravalomanana and the 2002 crisis
A disputed election triggers months of confrontation; Marc Ravalomanana takes power and Ratsiraka flees.
Era: Independence & the Republics
Sources: Marc Ravalomanana · Encyclopædia Britannica, Madagascar Timeline: Madagascar's turbulent political history · ReliefWeb / IRIN
- — Asia:
Oman and the UAE sign their border agreement
Oman and the United Arab Emirates signed in Abu Dhabi the Border Agreement on the borders from Eastern Uqaidat to Darah. Oman ratified it by Royal Decree 10/2003 on 27 January 2003, and the two states exchanged the instruments of ratification on 11 October 2003.
Era: The Renaissance of Qaboos and Modern Oman
Sources: Royal Decree 10/2003 ratifying the Oman-UAE border agreement · Oman Royal Decrees, Oman, UAE ratify border agreement · Khaleej Times
- — Africa:
The gacaca community courts
Rwanda revives the traditional gacaca courts to try genocide cases locally; by their closure in June 2012 they have heard more than 1.9 million cases.
Era: Aftermath, Justice and Reconstruction
Sources: Gacaca court · Encyclopædia Britannica, Justice after genocide: Rwanda's journey toward accountability and healing · Marquette University
- — Europe:
Switzerland joins the United Nations
After rejecting membership in 1986, Swiss voters narrowly approved joining the UN in a referendum on 3 March 2002, and Switzerland became the 190th member state that September, while still standing outside the European Union.
Era: Neutral Switzerland: World Wars, Sovereignty and the Modern Confederation
Sources: When Switzerland joined the United Nations · SWI swissinfo.ch (Swiss Broadcasting Corporation), The History of Switzerland · Federal Department of Foreign Affairs (aboutswitzerland.eda.admin.ch)
- — Asia:
Oman and the UAE sign their border agreement
Oman and the United Arab Emirates signed in Abu Dhabi the Border Agreement on the borders from Eastern Uqaidat to Darah. Oman ratified it by Royal Decree 10/2003 on 27 January 2003, and the two states exchanged the instruments of ratification on 11 October 2003.
Era: Oil Wealth and the Global Federation
Sources: Royal Decree 10/2003 ratifying the Oman-UAE border agreement · Oman Royal Decrees, Oman, UAE ratify border agreement · Khaleej Times
- — Europe:
Gibraltar rejects shared sovereignty
In a referendum called by the Gibraltar Government, voters rejected a proposal for British–Spanish joint sovereignty by 17,900 votes to 187.
Era: World wars, decolonisation, and the modern UK
Sources: 2002 Gibraltar sovereignty referendum · Wikipedia
- — Asia:
Ilham Aliyev succeeds his father
On the death of the gravely ill Heydar Aliyev, his son Ilham Aliyev became president, continuing a family-led order built on Caspian oil and gas wealth.
Era: Independence, the Aliyev era and Karabakh
Sources: Ilham Aliyev, president of Azerbaijan · Encyclopædia Britannica, Heydar Aliyev, president of Azerbaijan · Encyclopædia Britannica
- — South America:
Lula and social inclusion
Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva's governments expand social programmes during a commodities boom, lifting millions out of poverty.
Era: Modern Democratic Brazil
Sources: Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva · Encyclopaedia Britannica
- — Africa:
Bozizé seizes power
After coups by André Kolingba (1981) and an elected interlude under Ange-Félix Patassé, army chief François Bozizé overthrew Patassé, continuing the cycle of armed takeovers.
Era: Bokassa and the Age of Coups
Sources: History of the Central African Republic · Kiddle Encyclopedia, Central African Republic — History · Encyclopaedia Britannica
- — Africa:
Peace agreements end the war
The 2002 Sun City and Pretoria accords and a transitional government formally end the Second Congo War in 2003.
Era: Africa's World War & After
Sources: Second Congo War · Wikipedia
- — Asia:
The Rose Revolution
Peaceful mass protests over disputed elections, in which demonstrators carried roses, forced the resignation of President Shevardnadze and brought the reformer Mikheil Saakashvili to power.
Era: Independent Georgia: Conflicts, the Rose Revolution and the Western Turn
Sources: Georgia: Independent Georgia · Encyclopaedia Britannica
- — Europe:
Constitutional referendum expands the prince's powers
Voters approved Prince Hans-Adam II's constitutional revision, enlarging the reigning prince's powers including a veto over legislation and the right to dismiss the government, after he threatened to leave the country.
Era: A Wealthy Microstate: Finance, the ICJ Case and the Modern Constitution
Sources: Hans-Adam II, prince of Liechtenstein · Encyclopaedia Britannica, Liechtenstein: History (Alpine, Principality, Sovereignty) · Encyclopaedia Britannica
- — Europe:
State Union of Serbia and Montenegro
European mediation transformed the federation into the loose State Union of Serbia and Montenegro, whose Constitutional Charter allowed either republic to hold an independence referendum after three years.
Era: Rump Yugoslavia, the State Union and the Road to the 2006 Referendum
Sources: Consequences of the referendum in Montenegro · Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly, Montenegro: History · Encyclopaedia Britannica
- — Asia:
Crossing points open along the Green Line
For the first time in decades, crossing points in the UN buffer zone were opened, allowing movement between north and south and easing the communities' separation without settling the dispute.
Era: A Divided Island to the Present
Sources: Cyprus - History · Encyclopaedia Britannica, About UNFICYP · United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus
- — South America:
Truth and Reconciliation Commission report
The Commission estimates that some 69,000 people died or disappeared in the 1980-2000 conflict, attributing most deaths to the Shining Path while also documenting state abuses.
Era: Reform, the Shining Path, and Modern Peru
Sources: Shining Path · Encyclopaedia Britannica, Peru: History · Encyclopaedia Britannica
- — North America:
U.S. Navy leaves Vieques
After years of civil disobedience following a 1999 death, the Navy ends weapons testing and withdraws from Vieques.
Era: Vieques, Maria, and the Unresolved Future
Sources: Puerto Rico: The Debate over Political Status · Encyclopædia Britannica
- — Africa:
Short-lived military coup
Soldiers briefly seized power over corruption and oil-revenue grievances; President Fradique de Menezes was restored within days through negotiation.
Era: One-party state, democracy and the modern republic
Sources: São Tomé and Príncipe · Wikipedia, São Tomé and Príncipe — After independence · Encyclopaedia Britannica
- — Oceania:
RAMSI intervention
At the government's request, Australia leads a multinational mission that restores order, disarms militias and rebuilds institutions until 2017.
Era: Tensions, Recovery and Great-Power Attention
Sources: Australian peacekeepers in Solomon Islands, 2000–2017 · Australian Government (Anzac Portal, Dept of Veterans' Affairs)
- — Oceania:
Harold Keke surrenders
The Isatabu Freedom Movement leader gives himself up to Australian forces and is charged with the murder of the priest and MP Augustine Geve.
Era: Tensions, Recovery and Great-Power Attention
Sources: Solomon Islands profile - Timeline · BBC News
- — Europe:
Accession to NATO
Bulgaria became a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation in the alliance's largest wave of enlargement, anchoring the country in the Euro-Atlantic security community.
Era: Communism, 1989 and the Return to Europe
Sources: Enlargement and Article 10 (Bulgaria, 2004) · North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO), About Bulgaria: History · Council of Ministers of the Republic of Bulgaria (gov.bg)
- — Asia:
The Annan Plan referendums
A UN reunification plan was put to simultaneous referendums; Turkish Cypriots approved it but about three-quarters of Greek Cypriots voting rejected it, leaving the island divided on the eve of EU membership.
Era: The 1974 Division, the TRNC and the European Union
Sources: Cyprus profile – Timeline · BBC News, Cyprus (EU country profile) · European Union (european-union.europa.eu)
- — Asia:
Accession to the European Union
The Republic of Cyprus joined the EU; the whole island is EU territory, but the application of EU law is suspended in the northern areas not under the government's effective control.
Era: The 1974 Division, the TRNC and the European Union
Sources: Cyprus (EU country profile) · European Union (european-union.europa.eu)
- — Africa:
The "Wonga Coup" foiled
An attempted coup by a group of foreign mercenaries — the so-called Wonga Coup, linked to Simon Mann — was foiled in 2004, underscoring the instability around oil-rich Equatorial Guinea.
Era: Obiang, oil, and inequality
Sources: History of Equatorial Guinea · Wikipedia, Equatorial Guinea · Encyclopædia Britannica
- — Europe:
Accession to NATO
Estonia became a full member of NATO when its instruments of accession were deposited in Washington, anchoring its security in the Western alliance.
Era: The Singing Revolution, Restoration and the Return to Europe
Sources: Timeline of Estonia's accession to NATO · Estonian Ministry of Foreign Affairs / Estonia in NATO (nato.mfa.ee)
- — Europe:
Accession to the European Union
Estonia joined the European Union, completing its post-Soviet return to Europe after a 2003 referendum in which two-thirds of voters approved membership.
Era: The Singing Revolution, Restoration and the Return to Europe
Sources: Estonia and the European Union: Timeline of Relations · Estonian Ministry of Foreign Affairs / Estonia in EU (eu.mfa.ee)
- — North America:
Aristide leaves again; the UN deploys
An armed rebellion drives Aristide from the country a second time; US Marines land and a UN stabilisation force takes over, staying until 2019.
Era: Democracy, Disaster, and Collapse
Sources: Haiti country profile · BBC News
- — Europe:
Accession to NATO and the European Union
Having joined NATO on 12 March 1999, Hungary acceded to the European Union on 1 May 2004 in the bloc's largest single enlargement, completing its return to the West.
Era: Communism, 1956 and the Return to Europe
Sources: NATO member countries (Hungary, 12 March 1999) · North Atlantic Treaty Organization, EU enlargement: Hungary joined on 1 May 2004 · European Union (european-union.europa.eu)
- — Asia:
First direct presidential election
Indonesians directly elect their president for the first time, consolidating one of the world's largest democracies after the authoritarian New Order.
Era: Sukarno, the New Order and Democratic Indonesia
Sources: Indonesia (toward independence; Japanese occupation; after Suharto) · Encyclopaedia Britannica
- — Europe:
Accession to NATO and the European Union
Latvia became a member of NATO on 29 March 2004 and of the European Union on 1 May 2004, anchoring the restored state firmly within Western institutions.
Era: Soviet Rule, Restoration and the Return to Europe
Sources: Latvia and NATO · Ministry of Defence of the Republic of Latvia, Latvia: History · Encyclopaedia Britannica
- — Europe:
Accession to NATO
Lithuania formally joined NATO on 29 March 2004, anchoring its security in the Atlantic alliance a little over a decade after the withdrawal of Soviet forces.
Era: Restoration of Independence and a European Lithuania
Sources: Chronology of Events: Lithuania and NATO · Permanent Delegation of the Republic of Lithuania to NATO (nato.mfa.lt)
- — Europe:
Accession to the European Union
Lithuania joined the European Union on 1 May 2004 and adopted the euro in 2015, completing its return to the institutions of the West.
Era: Restoration of Independence and a European Lithuania
Sources: Lithuania (EU member country profile) · European Union (european-union.europa.eu)
- — Europe:
Accession to the European Union
Malta joined the European Union on 1 May 2004 in its largest enlargement and adopted the euro on 1 January 2008, completing its integration into Europe.
Era: The George Cross Island and the European Republic
Sources: Malta — EU country profile · European Union
- — Asia:
Annan Plan referendums fail
The UN reunification plan was approved by a majority of Turkish Cypriots but rejected by a large majority of Greek Cypriots in simultaneous referendums, so it was not implemented.
Era: A Divided Island to the Present
Sources: Cyprus - History · Encyclopaedia Britannica
- — Asia:
Republic of Cyprus joins the European Union
Cyprus acceded to the EU as a divided island; EU law applies in full only in the south and is suspended in the north pending a political settlement.
Era: A Divided Island to the Present
Sources: Cyprus - History · Encyclopaedia Britannica
- — Europe:
Accession to the European Union
Poland joined the European Union, completing its return to the West after the fall of communism and accelerating its economic and political integration into Europe.
Era: Communist Poland, Solidarity and the Modern Republic
Sources: Poland in the EU · Government of Poland (gov.pl)
- — Europe:
Romania joins NATO
Romania formally joined NATO on 29 March 2004, depositing its instrument of accession in Washington alongside six other new members in the alliance's largest round of enlargement.
Era: Revolution, democracy and the European turn
Sources: Seven new members join NATO, 29 March 2004 · North Atlantic Treaty Organization
- — Europe:
Slovakia joins NATO
Slovakia officially became a member of NATO on 29 March 2004, part of the largest single enlargement in the Alliance's history, anchoring the young republic in the Western security community.
Era: Independent Slovakia in Europe
Sources: Slovakia and NATO enlargement (2004 invitees) · North Atlantic Treaty Organization
- — Europe:
Accession to the European Union
Slovakia joined the European Union on 1 May 2004, completing its integration into Western Europe little more than a decade after independence.
Era: Independent Slovakia in Europe
Sources: U.S. Relations With Slovakia · U.S. Department of State, Slovakia and the euro · European Commission (Economy and Finance)
- — Europe:
Slovenia joins NATO
After a 2003 referendum approved by some two-thirds of voters, Slovenia became a member of NATO on 29 March 2004, anchoring its security in the Western alliance.
Era: A European Republic and the Border Arbitration
Sources: Slovenia's NATO membership · Government of Slovenia (gov.si), Slovenia – EU country · European Union (european-union.europa.eu)
- — Europe:
Accession to the European Union
Slovenia joined the European Union on 1 May 2004 in the bloc's largest enlargement, the only former Yugoslav republic to accede in that wave.
Era: A European Republic and the Border Arbitration
Sources: Slovenia – EU country · European Union (european-union.europa.eu)
- — Europe:
The Orange Revolution
Mass protests against a fraudulent presidential election forced a court-ordered re-run that brought the pro-Western Viktor Yushchenko to the presidency over Viktor Yanukovych.
Era: Independent Ukraine, Revolutions and the Defence of Sovereignty
Sources: Orange Revolution · Encyclopaedia Britannica
- — South America:
Frente Amplio breaks the duopoly
The left-wing Frente Amplio coalition wins the presidency for the first time, ending nearly two centuries of Colorado and Blanco dominance.
Era: Dictatorship, Recovery, and Modern Uruguay
Sources: Uruguay · Encyclopaedia Britannica, Jose Mujica · Encyclopaedia Britannica
- — Africa:
CNDD-FDD wins power; Nkurunziza president
Following the Arusha settlement, the former rebel CNDD-FDD wins the 2005 elections and Pierre Nkurunziza becomes president.
Era: Modern Burundi
Sources: Pierre Nkurunziza · Encyclopaedia Britannica, History of Burundi · Wikipedia
- — Asia:
New constitution and sectarian war
Iraq adopts a federal, power-sharing constitution, but a Sunni-led insurgency and, after the 2006 al-Askari shrine bombing, brutal Shiʿi–Sunni sectarian violence engulf the country.
Era: Iraq Since 2003 — Invasion, Insurgency and Recovery
Sources: Iraq War · Encyclopædia Britannica, Iraq — The Republic of Iraq · Encyclopædia Britannica
- — Asia:
The Tulip Revolution
Allegations of fraud in the parliamentary elections and of pervasive corruption sparked mass demonstrations that forced President Akayev to flee the country, in the first of Kyrgyzstan's post-Soviet revolutions.
Era: Independence and the Akayev Years
Sources: Tulip Revolution · Encyclopaedia Britannica, Kyrgyzstan: History · Encyclopaedia Britannica
- — Asia:
Hariri assassination and the Cedar Revolution
A car bomb kills former prime minister Rafic Hariri and others; mass protests known as the Cedar Revolution lead Syria to withdraw its forces after nearly thirty years.
Era: Civil War, Foreign Intervention and Collapse
Sources: Rafiq al-Hariri · Encyclopaedia Britannica, Iraq and World Order: A Lebanese Perspective · United Nations University Press, Lebanon: Lebanon's Second Republic since 1990 · Encyclopaedia Britannica
- — Africa:
Ellen Johnson Sirleaf elected
Ellen Johnson Sirleaf won the presidential run-off against George Weah and was inaugurated in January 2006 as the first woman elected to lead an African nation.
Era: Peace, Sirleaf, and the Ebola epidemic
Sources: Ellen Johnson Sirleaf · Encyclopaedia Britannica, Ellen Johnson Sirleaf — Biographical · The Nobel Prize
- — Europe:
ICJ judgment in Liechtenstein v. Germany
In Certain Property (Liechtenstein v. Germany), brought to the International Court of Justice in 2001 over a confiscated van Laer painting, the Court ruled on 10 February 2005 that it had no jurisdiction, locating the dispute's source in the 1945 Beneš-era confiscations.
Era: A Wealthy Microstate: Finance, the ICJ Case and the Modern Constitution
Sources: Certain Property (Liechtenstein v. Germany) — case overview · International Court of Justice, Summary of the Judgment of 10 February 2005, Certain Property (Liechtenstein v. Germany) · International Court of Justice, Certain Property (Liechtenstein v. Germany) — Preliminary Objections: the Court finds it has no jurisdiction · International Court of Justice
- — Africa:
Coup ends the Taya era
A military council overthrows President Ould Taya, beginning a period of transition punctuated by a further coup in 2008.
Era: Coups, Withdrawal and the Modern State
Sources: Mauritania · Encyclopaedia Britannica
- — Africa:
First peaceful transfer of power
Sam Nujoma stepped down after fifteen years and was succeeded as president by Hifikepunye Pohamba, the first of several peaceful handovers within SWAPO governments.
Era: Independent Namibia since 1990
Sources: Namibia · Wikipedia, Namibia (country, history and government) · Encyclopaedia Britannica
- — Europe:
EU candidate status
Having applied for membership in 2004, the country was granted European Union candidate status in December 2005, opening a long road toward accession.
Era: The Ohrid Framework, NATO and the Road to Europe
Sources: Republic of North Macedonia (EU enlargement policy) · Council of the European Union
- — Africa:
Comprehensive Peace Agreement signed
Khartoum and the SPLM/SPLA sign the CPA, ending the second war and providing for southern autonomy and a self-determination referendum within six years.
Era: Peace, Referendum and a New State
Sources: South Sudan: The 2005 Comprehensive Peace Agreement, Conflict, Independence · Encyclopaedia Britannica, Ten Years Later: Taking Stock of Sudan's Comprehensive Peace Agreement · Council on Foreign Relations
- — Africa:
Death of John Garang
Weeks after becoming Sudan's first vice-president, John Garang dies in a helicopter crash; Salva Kiir Mayardit succeeds him as SPLM leader and southern president.
Era: Peace, Referendum and a New State
Sources: South Sudan: The 2005 Comprehensive Peace Agreement, Conflict, Independence · Encyclopaedia Britannica, Ten Years Later: Taking Stock of Sudan's Comprehensive Peace Agreement · Council on Foreign Relations
- — Africa:
Comprehensive Peace Agreement
The 2005 accord ends the second civil war, grants the south autonomy, and promises a referendum on independence.
Era: Independence and the Long Civil Wars
Sources: Sudanese Civil Wars · Encyclopedia.com, Sudan · Wikipedia
- — Africa:
Death of Eyadéma and dynastic succession
Eyadéma died after nearly 38 years in power, then Africa's longest-serving ruler; the army installed his son Faure Gnassingbé, prompting an international outcry over the unconstitutional handover.
Era: The Eyadéma era and the Gnassingbé dynasty
Sources: Gnassingbé Eyadéma · Wikipedia, Faure Gnassingbé · Wikipedia
- — Africa:
Faure Gnassingbé elected amid violence
After ECOWAS pressure forced him to step down, Faure Gnassingbé won a disputed election; the contested result was followed by violence that UN estimates put at hundreds of deaths.
Era: The Eyadéma era and the Gnassingbé dynasty
Sources: Faure Gnassingbé · Wikipedia, Togo (country overview and history) · Encyclopaedia Britannica
- — Africa:
Term limits removed
Parliament removes presidential term limits from the constitution, and Uganda returns to multiparty politics; Museveni's tenure lengthens into one of Africa's longest.
Era: The Bush War, Museveni and the Northern Insurgency
Sources: Yoweri Museveni · Encyclopaedia Britannica, Uganda: Bill Eliminating Presidential Age Limit · U.S. Library of Congress, Global Legal Monitor
- — Asia:
The Andijan events
Government forces open fire on protesters in the city of Andijan; rights groups estimate that hundreds of civilians were killed, drawing international condemnation of Karimov's rule.
Era: Independent Uzbekistan
Sources: Islam Karimov — Central Asian leader · Encyclopaedia Britannica
- — South America:
Evo Morales takes office
Evo Morales, leader of the MAS, becomes Bolivia's first indigenous president, beginning an era of indigenous-majority politics and hydrocarbon nationalisation.
Era: Democracy and the Indigenous-Majority Era
Sources: Evo Morales · Encyclopaedia Britannica, A Guide to the United States' History of Recognition, Diplomatic, and Consular Relations, by Country: Bolivia · U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian
- — Oceania:
Bainimarama's coup
Commodore Frank Bainimarama overthrows the Qarase government in Fiji's fourth coup, beginning an extended period of military-led rule.
Era: Independence Tested: The Cycle of Coups
Sources: Frank Bainimarama — Biography & Facts · Encyclopædia Britannica, Laisenia Qarase — prime minister of Fiji · Encyclopædia Britannica
- — Asia:
Sheikh Sabah Al-Ahmad becomes emir
The veteran foreign minister Sheikh Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Sabah acceded as emir, a reign noted for diplomacy and humanitarian engagement until his death in 2020.
Era: Reconstruction and Modern Kuwait
Sources: Kuwait's Emir, Sheikh Sabah al-Ahmad al-Sabah, Has Died · Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Kuwait: History · Encyclopaedia Britannica
- — Asia:
First nuclear test
North Korea conducts its first underground nuclear test, having withdrawn from the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in 2003 and cycled through failed negotiations.
Era: Famine and the Second Succession
Sources: Chronology of U.S.-North Korean Nuclear and Missile Diplomacy, 1985-2022 · Arms Control Association, North Korea's Nuclear Weapons and Missile Programs · U.S. Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress
- — Asia:
Coup against Thaksin Shinawatra
The military ousts populist Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra while he is abroad, opening nearly two decades of conflict between his movement and the establishment.
Era: Cold War Ally, Coups, and the Modern Kingdom
Sources: Bhumibol Adulyadej (Rama IX) · Encyclopædia Britannica, Thailand · Encyclopædia Britannica
- — Asia:
The 2006 crisis
The dismissal of disaffected soldiers triggers fighting in Dili that kills dozens and displaces tens of thousands, topples the prime minister, and brings back international peacekeepers.
Era: Asia's Youngest Nation
Sources: East Timor · Encyclopaedia Britannica
- — Asia:
The treaty with India revised
A new agreement gives Bhutan more say over its own foreign and defence policy, loosening a constraint carried from 1910 through 1949.
Era: Democracy and the Modern Kingdom
Sources: Bhutan country profile · BBC News
- — Europe:
ICJ Genocide judgment (Bosnia v. Serbia)
The International Court of Justice held that genocide was committed at Srebrenica and that Serbia had violated the Genocide Convention by failing to prevent it and to cooperate with the ICTY.
Era: Independence, the Bosnian War and the Srebrenica Genocide
Sources: Summary of the Judgment of 26 February 2007 (Bosnia v. Serbia) · International Court of Justice, Application of the Genocide Convention (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro) · International Court of Justice
- — Europe:
Accession to the European Union
Bulgaria joined the European Union on 1 January 2007, completing its return to Europe after the fall of communism and the hardships of transition.
Era: Communism, 1989 and the Return to Europe
Sources: Bulgaria: an EU country · European Union (european-union.europa.eu), About Bulgaria: History · Council of Ministers of the Republic of Bulgaria (gov.bg)
- — North America:
Recognition switches from Taipei to Beijing
Costa Rica transfers diplomatic recognition to the People's Republic of China in pursuit of investment.
Era: Peace, Welfare, and the Green Republic
Sources: Costa Rica country profile · BBC News
- — South America:
The Correa decade
Rafael Correa governs for ten years of his Citizens' Revolution, using oil revenue to expand the state and rewrite the constitution.
Era: Oil, Dollar and the Modern Crisis
Sources: History of Ecuador · Encyclopaedia Britannica
- — Africa:
Ouagadougou Political Agreement
A peace accord brokered through regional mediation brought rebel leader Guillaume Soro into a unity government and set a path toward reunification and elections, easing the first civil war.
Era: Ivoirité, civil war, and recovery
Sources: Côte d'Ivoire Post-Gbagbo: Crisis Recovery · Congressional Research Service, History of Ivory Coast · Wikipedia
- — Europe:
Latvia-Russia border treaty
The border treaty with Russia entered into force, fixing the frontier and renouncing Latvia's claim to the Abrene district transferred to the Russian SFSR in 1944, while the Constitutional Court reaffirmed state continuity.
Era: Soviet Rule, Restoration and the Return to Europe
Sources: So long, Abrene · The Baltic Times, Judgment on the Latvia-Russia border treaty (case 2007-10-0102) · Constitutional Court of the Republic of Latvia
- — Africa:
Slavery criminalised
A law makes slavery a criminal offence; the constitution later recognises it as a crime against humanity in 2012, although rights groups report that descent-based slavery has persisted in practice.
Era: Coups, Withdrawal and the Modern State
Sources: Descent-based slavery in Mauritania · Anti-Slavery International, Enforcing Mauritania's Anti-Slavery Legislation · Minority Rights Group
- — North America:
Ortega returns to power
Having won the 2006 election, Daniel Ortega is inaugurated president again, beginning a long second period in office.
Era: Democratic Interlude and Ortega's Return
Sources: Daniel Ortega · Encyclopædia Britannica, Nicaragua: Ortega's return to power · Encyclopædia Britannica
- — Asia:
Assassination of Benazir Bhutto
Former prime minister Benazir Bhutto is assassinated at a rally weeks before national elections, after which civilian democratic rule is restored in 2008.
Era: Bangladesh, Military Rule and the Modern Republic
Sources: Zulfikar Ali Bhutto · Encyclopædia Britannica
- — Asia:
Blockade of the Gaza Strip
After Hamas took control of Gaza, Israel and Egypt imposed a blockade restricting the movement of people and goods, with severe humanitarian consequences.
Era: Occupation, Dispossession, and the Present
Sources: Gaza Strip - Blockade · Encyclopaedia Britannica, Blockade of the Gaza Strip · Wikipedia
- — Europe:
Accession to the European Union
On 1 January 2007 Romania, with Bulgaria, joined the European Union, raising it to twenty-seven member states and completing Romania's integration into the West.
Era: Revolution, democracy and the European turn
Sources: Bulgaria and Romania join the European Union · European Central Bank
- — Asia:
Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow elected
Following Niyazov's death in December 2006, Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow was elected president, beginning fifteen years of rule that retained tight one-party control and the neutral, gas-export policy.
Era: Independence and the Neutral Republic
Sources: Gurbanguly Berdymukhammedov · Encyclopædia Britannica, Turkmenistan · Encyclopædia Britannica
- — Oceania:
National Apology to the Stolen Generations
Prime Minister Kevin Rudd delivered a formal apology in parliament to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, and especially to the Stolen Generations harmed by past policies of forced child removal.
Era: Modern Australia: multiculturalism, reconciliation, and the apology
Sources: Defining Moments: National Apology · National Museum of Australia, Australia (country) · Encyclopaedia Britannica
- — North America:
Special Agreement on the dispute
Belize and Guatemala signed a Special Agreement committing to submit Guatemala's territorial, insular and maritime claim to the International Court of Justice, subject to approval by referendum in each country.
Era: Independent Belize and the Guatemalan question
Sources: The Belize–Guatemala Territorial Differendum (Peace Fund) · Organization of American States, Guatemala's Territorial, Insular and Maritime Claim (Guatemala/Belize), Case No. 177 · International Court of Justice
- — Asia:
Constitution and democratic monarchy
Following the country's first parliamentary elections, Bhutan's written Constitution comes into force, transforming the kingdom into a democratic constitutional monarchy with Gross National Happiness as a goal of the state.
Era: Democracy and the Modern Kingdom
Sources: Bhutan — History · Encyclopaedia Britannica, U.S. Relations With Bhutan · U.S. Department of State
- — Asia:
Coronation of the fifth king
Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck is formally enthroned as the fifth Druk Gyalpo, his coronation timed to the centenary of the Wangchuck monarchy and the inauguration of democratic rule.
Era: Democracy and the Modern Kingdom
Sources: Bhutan — History · Encyclopaedia Britannica, U.S. Relations With Bhutan · U.S. Department of State
- — North America:
Raul Castro assumes the presidency
An ailing Fidel Castro hands power to his brother Raul, who introduces gradual economic reforms.
Era: Special Period, Thaw, and the Present
Sources: Cuba since 1991 · Encyclopaedia Britannica
- — Africa:
Camara's coup after Conté's death
On the death of long-ruling President Lansana Conté, Captain Moussa Dadis Camara leads a military junta to power.
Era: Coups, Civilian Rule and Bauxite
Sources: Guinea — History · Encyclopaedia Britannica, Guinea — 28 September Massacre / political background · GlobalSecurity.org
- — Europe:
Application for EU membership
Montenegro applied to join the European Union, beginning the accession process that would make it one of the leading candidates among the Western Balkan countries.
Era: Independent Montenegro, NATO and Europe
Sources: Montenegro: EU accession (application 2008, candidate status December 2010, negotiations from 2012) · European Commission, Directorate-General for Enlargement and Eastern Neighbourhood
- — Asia:
Monarchy abolished, republic declared
A newly elected constituent assembly ends more than two centuries of Shah rule and declares Nepal a federal democratic republic.
Era: Insurgency, Republic and Reconstruction
Sources: Nepal — Fall of the monarchy · Encyclopædia Britannica, Nepal — Federal republic · Encyclopædia Britannica
- — Asia:
Ledra Street reopens
The crossing in the heart of walled Nicosia, closed since 1964, is reopened — the most symbolically charged of the openings along the buffer zone.
Era: A Divided Island to the Present
Sources: Cyprus country profile · BBC News
- — Asia:
Final border maps include Madha and Nahwa
Oman and the UAE signed the final coordinates and maps of their border: 51 maps and three lists of coordinates for the border posts in three sectors, one of them from Madha to Al Nahwa, closing the technical demarcation begun by the 2002 agreement.
Era: The Renaissance of Qaboos and Modern Oman
Sources: Key border agreement to be signed with Oman · Emirates24|7 (WAM)
- — South America:
First opposition victory
Former bishop Fernando Lugo wins the presidency, ending more than sixty years of Colorado Party rule in Paraguay's first electoral transfer of power between parties.
Era: The Stroessner Era, Democracy and Itaipu
Sources: Fernando Lugo · Encyclopaedia Britannica
- — Asia:
Attack on the president
Rebel soldiers shoot and gravely wound President Jose Ramos-Horta and attack Prime Minister Xanana Gusmao's convoy; both survive and the rebellion collapses.
Era: Asia's Youngest Nation
Sources: East Timor · Encyclopaedia Britannica
- — Asia:
Final border maps include Madha and Nahwa
Oman and the UAE signed the final coordinates and maps of their border: 51 maps and three lists of coordinates for the border posts in three sectors, one of them from Madha to Al Nahwa, closing the technical demarcation begun by the 2002 agreement.
Era: Oil Wealth and the Global Federation
Sources: Key border agreement to be signed with Oman · Emirates24|7 (WAM)
- — Europe:
Albania joins NATO
Albania, with Croatia, formally joined NATO on 1 April 2009 as the alliance's 27th and 28th members, completing its strategic reorientation toward the West.
Era: Transition, the 1997 Crisis, NATO and Europe
Sources: Ceremony marks the accession of Albania and Croatia to NATO · NATO, NATO Enlargement: Albania, Croatia, and Possible Future Candidates · U.S. Congressional Research Service
- — South America:
Plurinational constitution
A new constitution refounds Bolivia as a plurinational state recognising its indigenous nations and expanding their rights.
Era: Democracy and the Indigenous-Majority Era
Sources: Evo Morales · Encyclopaedia Britannica
- — Africa:
Mayotte votes to become a French department
In a referendum, Mayotte votes overwhelmingly to become a fully integrated French department, a status it assumes in 2011 as France's 101st department.
Era: The Union and the Mayotte Question
Sources: 2009 Mahoran status referendum · Wikipedia, Mayotte · Encyclopædia Britannica
- — Europe:
French Guiana an EU outermost region
Article 349 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union names French Guiana among the outermost regions, whose remoteness justifies specific measures in the application of EU law there. It is one of nine such regions.
Era: The Republics & the Modern Nation
Sources: Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, Article 349 · EUR-Lex, Outermost regions · European Commission, Regional and Urban Policy
- — Africa:
Death of Omar Bongo; Ali Bongo succeeds
Omar Bongo died in June 2009 after ruling for over forty years; his son Ali Bongo Ondimba won the ensuing presidential election, continuing the family's hold on power.
Era: Independence, oil, and the Bongo era
Sources: Omar Bongo · Wikipedia, 2023 Gabonese coup d'état · Wikipedia
- — Africa:
Repression and abuses under Jammeh
Jammeh's rule was marked by suppression of the press, detentions, torture, enforced disappearances and a 2009 witch-hunting campaign; a later Truth, Reconciliation and Reparations Commission documented widespread abuses.
Era: The Jammeh era and the 2017 transition
Sources: Yahya Jammeh · Wikipedia, The Gambia (country overview and history) · Encyclopaedia Britannica
- — Africa:
Vieira assassinated
Having returned to the presidency in 2005, João Bernardo Vieira was assassinated by soldiers in March 2009, hours after the killing of the army chief of staff — a vivid sign of the army's grip on politics.
Era: Instability, civil war and the cocaine route
Sources: History of Guinea-Bissau · Wikipedia, Guinea-Bissau (country overview and history) · Encyclopaedia Britannica
- — North America:
Removal of President Zelaya
The military removes President Manuel Zelaya and Congress installs Roberto Micheletti; a later OAS commission deems the removal an illegal coup while finding Zelaya had defied the courts.
Era: Crisis, Migration, and a New Century
Sources: Manuel Zelaya · Encyclopaedia Britannica, Honduras: The 21st century · Encyclopaedia Britannica
- — Europe:
Diplomatic relations with the Czech Republic
After more than six decades without recognition arising from the 1945 confiscations, Liechtenstein and the Czech Republic established diplomatic relations in 2009 and created a joint commission of historians.
Era: A Wealthy Microstate: Finance, the ICJ Case and the Modern Constitution
Sources: History of Czech–Liechtenstein relations (confiscations and 2009 relations) · Czech-Liechtenstein Society
- — Africa:
The 2009 coup
Andry Rajoelina ousts Ravalomanana with military backing, in a transfer widely condemned as unconstitutional.
Era: Independence & the Republics
Sources: Madagascar Timeline: Madagascar's turbulent political history · ReliefWeb / IRIN, Marc Ravalomanana · Encyclopædia Britannica
- — Europe:
ICJ Black Sea boundary with Ukraine
The International Court of Justice fixed the Romania–Ukraine maritime boundary in the Black Sea, ruling that Ukraine's Serpents' Island would have no effect beyond its 12-mile territorial sea.
Era: Revolution, democracy and the European turn
Sources: Maritime Delimitation in the Black Sea (Romania v. Ukraine), Judgment of 3 February 2009 · International Court of Justice
- — Europe:
Arbitration Agreement with Croatia
Slovenia and Croatia signed an Arbitration Agreement submitting their land and maritime border dispute, including Piran Bay, to the Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague.
Era: A European Republic and the Border Arbitration
Sources: Arbitration (the border dispute with Croatia) · Government of Slovenia (gov.si), Arbitration between the Republic of Croatia and the Republic of Slovenia (PCA Case No. 2012-04, Final Award 29 June 2017) · Permanent Court of Arbitration
- — Africa:
ICC indicts Bashir
The International Criminal Court issues warrants for President al-Bashir for war crimes, crimes against humanity and genocide — the first against a sitting head of state.
Era: Darfur, Secession and the War of the Generals
Sources: Al Bashir Case · International Criminal Court, ICC Issues Arrest Warrant for Sudanese President Bashir · United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
Politics & Power in the 2000s
Every event in the Terralore archive tagged politics and power — dynasties, constitutions, revolutions and changes of regime, narrowed to the 2000s — 128 of them, drawn from 90 nations, running from 2000 to 2009. Each entry keeps the sources it was verified against and links back to the chronicle it came from.
- Events
- 128
- Nations
- 90
- Earliest
- 2000
- Latest
- 2009
- Africa
- 38
- Europe
- 35
- Asia
- 33
- North America
- 9
- South America
- 7
- Oceania
- 6
Every entry below is the same record, with the same sources, as the one on its nation’s chronicle.